Preface	6
	Contents	8
	List of Figures	10
	List of Tables	14
	Contributors	16
	Chapter 1: Carbon Capture and Utilization as an Option for Climate Change Mitigation: Integrated Technology Assessment	19
	1.1 CCS as an Option for Climate Change Mitigation and CO2 for Industrial Application	19
	1.2 Methodological Approach of an Integrated Technology Assessment for CCS and Structure of the Study	22
	1.2.1 Technical Potential, RandD Work, and Degree of Technical Maturity	23
	1.2.2 Application in Science and Industry	24
	1.2.3 Framework for Energy and Climate Policy	25
	1.3 Energy and Industrial Policy Implications from a German Perspective	25
	References	26
	Part I: Technologies: Status and RandD Prospects	28
	Chapter 2: Carbon Capture Technologies	29
	2.1 Introduction	29
	2.2 Carbon Capture Technologies for Use in Coal-Fired Power Plants	31
	2.2.1 Post-combustion Processes	32
	2.2.1.1 State of the Art	32
	2.2.1.2 Efficiency Losses	33
	2.2.1.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Post-combustion Processes	34
	2.2.1.4 Second-Generation Post-combustion Processes	34
	2.2.2 Oxyfuel Processes	35
	2.2.2.1 State of the Art	35
	2.2.2.2 Efficiency Losses	36
	2.2.2.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Cryogenic Oxyfuel Processes	37
	2.2.2.4 Second-Generation Oxyfuel Processes	37
	2.2.3 Pre-combustion Processes	38
	2.2.3.1 State of the Art	38
	2.2.3.2 Efficiency Losses	39
	2.2.3.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Pre-combustion Processes	39
	2.2.3.4 Second-Generation Pre-combustion Processes	40
	2.3 Future Framework Conditions and Requirements for the Implementation of Power Plants with Carbon Capture	40
	2.3.1 Flexibility of Power Plants	41
	2.3.1.1 Post-combustion Processes	42
	2.3.1.2 Oxyfuel Processes	43
	2.3.1.3 Pre-combustion Processes	43
	2.3.2 Retrofitting the Existing Power Plant Fleet	44
	2.3.2.1 Excursus: Germany	45
	2.3.2.2 Suitability of Carbon Capture Technologies for Retrofitting	45
	2.3.2.3 Oxyfuel Processes	46
	2.3.2.4 Post-combustion Processes	46
	2.4 Carbon Capture Processes for Industrial Applications	47
	2.4.1 Steel and Iron Production	50
	2.4.2 Cement and Clinker Production	51
	2.4.3 Refineries	52
	2.4.4 Ammonia Synthesis	53
	2.4.5 Ethylene Oxide Production	53
	2.4.6 Excursus: Carbon Capture During Biogas Treatment	54
	2.5 Summary and Conclusions	56
	References	57
	Chapter 3: CO2 Transportation	62
	3.1 Introduction	63
	3.2 Current Situation	63
	3.3 Purity Level and Quality Criteria	66
	3.4 Risks of CO2 Transportation	69
	3.4.1 Dangers of CO2	69
	3.4.2 Hazard Potential	70
	3.4.3 Operational Experience	70
	3.4.4 Measures Minimizing Risks	72
	3.4.5 Evaluation of Transportation Risks	72
	3.4.6 Estimation of Risk Zones	73
	3.4.7 Categorization of Technical Risks	75
	3.4.8 Uncertainties in the Assessment	77
	3.5 Summary and Conclusions	78
	References	79
	Chapter 4: Opportunities for Utilizing and Recycling CO2	81
	4.1 Motivation and Background	81
	4.2 Evaluation Framework and Criteria	82
	4.2.1 Potential for the Material Utilization and Recycling of CO2	82
	4.2.2 Sources and Purity of CO2	84
	4.2.3 Evaluation Criteria for CO2-Utilization	84
	4.3 Organochemical Utilization of CO2	85
	4.3.1 Applications	86
	4.3.1.1 Urea	86
	4.3.1.2 Methanol	87
	4.3.1.3 Salicylic Acid and p-Hydroxybenzoic Acid	89
	4.3.1.4 Formic Acid	89
	4.3.1.5 Cyclic Carbonates	90
	4.3.1.6 Dimethyl Carbonate	91
	4.3.1.7 Polymers (Copolymerization of Reactive Monomers with CO2)	91
	4.3.1.8 Further Polymer Building Blocks	92
	4.3.1.9 Pharmaceuticals and Fine Chemicals	92
	4.3.2 Outlook	93
	4.4 Inorganic Substances	94
	4.4.1 Calcite	94
	4.4.2 Hydrotalcite	94
	4.4.3 Other Application Areas	95
	4.5 Physical Utilization	95
	4.5.1 Enhanced Oil Recovery/Enhanced Gas Recovery	95
	4.5.2 Enhanced Coal Bed Methane (ECBM)	96
	4.5.3 Methods for the Reversible Adsorption of CO2	96
	4.5.4 Application in the Beverage and Food Industry	97
	4.5.5 Cleaning Agents and Extractants	98
	4.5.6 Use as an Impregnating Agent	98
	4.5.7 Inert Gas	99
	4.5.8 Potential as a Solvent and Replacement of Volatile Organic Compounds	99
	4.6 Evaluation of Especially Innovative Solution Approaches	100
	4.6.1 Material CO2-Utilization and Innovative Products	100
	4.6.1.1 Polymers from Technically Fixated CO2 (Duromers, Polycarbonates, Polycondensates)	100
	4.6.1.2 Fine Chemicals	102
	4.6.1.3 Production of Methanol by Direct Hydrogenation of CO2	103
	4.6.1.4 Oxalic Acid	103
	4.6.2 Innovative Technologies for Material CO2-Utilization	103
	4.6.2.1 Polymers from CO2	104
	4.6.2.2 CO2-Hydrogenation	104
	4.6.2.3 Electrochemical Activation of CO2	105
	4.6.2.4 Photocatalytic Activation of CO2	105
	4.7 Conclusions	106
	References	108
	Chapter 5: Environmental Aspects of CCS	115
	5.1 Introduction	115
	5.2 Life Cycle Assessment as an Ecological Evaluation Method	116
	5.3 Environmental Effects of Conventional Capture Technologies	117
	5.3.1 Technology-Related Differences	117
	5.3.1.1 Capture Technologies	117
	5.3.1.2 CO2 Transportation and Storage	120
	5.3.1.3 Origin and Composition of Fuels	122
	5.3.2 Differences Arising from the LCA Methodology	122
	5.3.2.1 Impact Categories	122
	5.3.2.2 Time Horizon	123
	5.3.2.3 Spatial Representation	123
	5.3.2.4 Upstream and Downstream Process Chains	124
	5.3.3 CCS Technologies and Their Environmental Impacts	126
	5.3.3.1 Hard Coal and Lignite	127
	5.3.3.2 Natural Gas	130
	5.4 Environmental Aspects of Future Capture Technologies of the 2nd Generation	131
	5.4.1 Power Plant Concepts	131
	5.4.1.1 Reference Power Plant (RPP SC) Without CCS	132
	5.4.1.2 Oxyfuel Concept	132
	5.4.1.3 Cryogenic Air Separation (C ASU)	132
	5.4.1.4 Membrane-Based Air Separation (HTM ASU)	133
	5.4.2 Results of the Life Cycle Inventory	134
	5.4.3 Results of the Impact Assessment	135
	5.4.4 Interpretation	137
	5.5 Summary and Conclusions	137
	References	138
	Chapter 6: Safe Operation of Geological CO2 Storage Using the Example of the Pilot Site in Ketzin	141
	6.1 Introduction and Motivation	141
	6.2 Processes of Retaining CO2 in Porous Reservoir Rocks	142
	6.3 Potential Leakage from CO2 Storage	144
	6.4 Safety of the Geological Storage of CO2	146
	6.5 Monitoring of CO2 Storage	147
	6.6 Experience from the Pilot Site in Ketzin	149
	6.6.1 Storage of CO2 Is Safe and Reliable	150
	6.6.2 Combination of Geochemical and Geophysical Monitoring Methods for Detecting Small Amounts of CO2	151
	6.6.3 Fluid Rock Interactions Do Not Impact the Storage Integrity	151
	6.6.4 Numerical Simulations Depict the Temporal and Spatial Behaviour of Injected CO2	151
	6.7 CO2 Storage as a Component of Energy Storage for a Closed Carbon Cycle	153
	6.8 Summary and Conclusions	154
	References	155
	Part II: Economic and Social Perspectives	158
	Chapter 7: Economic Analysis of Carbon Capture in the Energy Sector	159
	7.1 Introduction and Motivation	159
	7.2 Demonstration Plants	160
	7.2.1 Demonstration Plants for Electricity Generation	160
	7.2.2 Learning Rates	162
	Preliminary Conclusions	163
	7.3 Commercial Use of CCS	163
	7.3.1 Cost and Process Parameters	163
	7.3.2 Electricity Generation and CO2 Avoidance Costs	167
	7.3.3 Sensitivity Calculations	168
	Preliminary Conclusions	171
	7.4 Electricity Production and Power Exchange Price for CCS Power Plant Usage in Germany	172
	7.4.1 Pricing on the Electricity Market	172
	7.4.2 Use of CCS Power Plants	173
	Preliminary Conclusions	177
	7.5 Summary and Conclusions	178
	Appendix	179
	LCOE	179
	CAC	180
	Learning Curves	180
	Methodological Approach for Merit Order Analyses	181
	References	181
	Chapter 8: Cost Analysis for CCS in Selected Carbon-Intensive Industries	184
	8.1 Introduction and Motivation	184
	8.2 Methodology of Cost Analysis	185
	8.2.1 Methodological Approach	185
	8.2.2 Model Plants and Baseline Data for Cost Analysis	187
	8.3 Results	187
	8.3.1 Levelized Production Costs and CO2 Avoidance Costs	187
	8.3.2 Sensitivity Calculations	189
	8.4 Summary	192
	References	192
	Chapter 9: CCS Transportation Infrastructures: Technologies, Costs, and Regulation	194
	9.1 Introduction	194
	9.2 Optimal CCS Infrastructures and Costs	197
	9.3 One-Dimensional Infrastructure Model	202
	9.4 A Welfare-Maximizing Infrastructure Taking into Account Long-Term Business Decisions	205
	9.5 Regulation	207
	9.6 Summary and Conclusions	208
	References	209
	Chapter 10: The System Value of CCS Technologies in the Context of CO2 Mitigation Scenarios for Germany	211
	10.1 Introduction	211
	10.2 Methodological Approach and Scenario Design	213
	10.2.1 System Value	213
	10.2.2 The IKARUS Energy System Model	214
	10.2.3 Scenario Structure, Underlying Data and Basic Assumptions	215
	10.3 Energy Economics Results	219
	10.3.1 Energy and CO2 Balances	219
	10.3.1.1 Primary Energy	219
	10.3.1.2 End-Use Energy	219
	10.3.1.3 Installed Net Capacity	221
	10.3.1.4 Net Electricity Generation	222
	10.3.1.5 Installed Net CCS Capacity and CCS Electricity Generation	223
	10.3.1.6 CO2 Emissions	223
	10.3.1.7 Comparison of CO2 Reduction Scenarios	225
	10.3.2 Cost of Reduction Strategies	225
	10.3.2.1 CO2 Reduction Costs	225
	10.3.2.2 CCS System Value	227
	10.4 Summary and Conclusions	228
	References	229
	Chapter 11: Public Acceptance	231
	11.1 Introduction	231
	11.2 Public Acceptance of CCS as a Subject of Research	232
	11.2.1 Definition and Delimitation of the Subject of Research	232
	11.2.2 Methods of CCS Acceptance Research	234
	11.2.3 Key Findings of CCS Acceptance Research	237
	11.3 Public Acceptance of CCS in Germany	242
	11.3.1 Awareness and Knowledge of CCS	243
	11.3.2 Initial Attitudes Towards CCS	246
	11.3.3 Perception of the Risks and Benefits of CCS	248
	11.3.4 Factors Influencing Initial Attitudes Towards CCS	250
	11.4 Summary and Conclusions	255
	References	256
	Part III: Framework for Energy and Climate Policy	262
	Chapter 12: No CCS in Germany Despite the CCS Act?	263
	12.1 Introduction	263
	12.2 The EU Sets the Framework and the Deadlines	264
	12.3 Political Parties Attempt a Balancing Act	267
	12.4 The Federal States Have Conflicting Interests	270
	12.5 Social Actors Fail to Find Agreement	274
	12.6 The Legislative Process Is Tedious and Contentious	277
	12.7 A Future for CCS?	285
	References	288
	Chapter 13: CCS Policy in the EU: Will It Pay Off or Do We Have to Go Back to Square One?	295
	13.1 Introduction - Why Does the EU Need CCS?	295
	13.2 CCS - A Cornerstone of the EU´s Integrated Climate and Energy Policy	297
	13.2.1 Integrated Energy and Climate Change Package in 2007 - Determination of Strategic Orientation for CCS	297
	13.2.2 Climate and Energy Package 2008 - Definition of Long-Term Prospects for CCS	300
	13.2.2.1 EU Directive on Emissions Trading and EU Guidelines on State Aid for Environmental Protection	301
	13.2.2.2 European Legal Framework for Carbon Storage	302
	13.3 Funding of Research and Development	306
	13.4 Support for the Demonstration of CCS: Instruments and Their Implementation	307
	13.4.1 The European Energy Programme for Recovery	308
	13.4.2 NER300	310
	13.5 CCS in the EU - An Initial Assessment	312
	References	314
	Chapter 14: International Cooperation in Support of CCS	318
	14.1 Introduction	318
	14.2 International Cooperation: Priorities and Discussion	319
	14.2.1 International Cooperation Supporting Competitiveness	320
	14.2.2 International Cooperation Supporting the Demonstration of CCS Technologies	322
	14.2.3 International Cooperation and Knowledge Sharing	328
	14.3 Germany´s Role in International Collaboration	330
	14.4 Summary and Outlook	331
	References	332
	Part IV: Conclusion	335
	Chapter 15: Evaluation Index of Carbon Capture and Utilization: A German Perspective and Beyond	336
	15.1 Introduction and Motivation	337
	15.2 Key Conclusions of the Integrated Technology Evaluation	338
	15.2.1 Challenges for Technology and Actors	339
	15.2.1.1 Demonstration on an Industrial Scale and Commercial Availability	339
	15.2.1.2 Environmental and Safety Requirements	340
	15.2.1.3 Cost Efficiency and Economic Viability	341
	15.2.1.4 Coordination of Energy and Climate Policy	343
	15.2.1.5 Public Acceptance	346
	15.2.2 The Big Picture: Where Do We Stand?	347
	15.3 Possible Implications for Implementation in Europe	349
	Appendix: Survey	351
	References	352