Preface	5
	Contents	7
	1 The Built Environment and Its Policies	10
	Abstract	10
	1.1 Buildings Throughout Time	10
	1.2 Energy in Buildings: From Sufficiency to Efficiency	12
	1.3 Requirements for Future Buildings	14
	1.4 Sustainable Buildings	16
	1.5 The Built Environment and Its Policies: the Case of the Mediterranean Basin	22
	Part I Challenges and Priorities for a Sustainable Built Environment	25
	2 Climatic Change in the Built Environment in Temperate Climates with Emphasis on the Mediterranean Area	26
	Abstract	26
	2.1 Introduction	26
	2.2 The Multi-Fold Relationship Between Cities and Climate Change	27
	2.3 Urbanization in Europe	29
	2.4 Climate Change in Europe	30
	2.5 Climate in the Mediterranean Area	31
	2.6 Climate Change in the Mediterranean Area	32
	2.7 Impacts of Climate Change on Cities	35
	2.8 Conclusion	39
	References	39
	3 The Role of Buildings in Energy Systems	44
	Abstract	44
	3.1 Sustainability and Construction Activity	45
	3.2 Energy Consumption in Buildings	47
	3.2.1 Overall Energy Consumption in the Building Sector	47
	3.2.2 Energy Consumption Per Fuel Type and Renewable Energy Sources (RES)	49
	3.3 Means of Reducing Energy Consumption	50
	3.3.1 Energy Efficiency	50
	3.4 Embodied Energy of Structural Materials and Components	53
	3.5 Assessment Methods	56
	3.5.1 Introduction	56
	3.5.2 Environmental Assessment of Structural Products and Processes	61
	3.5.3 Environmental Assessment Methods for Buildings and Construction Works	62
	3.5.3.1 BREEAM (BRE Environmental Assessment Method)	63
	3.5.3.2 SBTOOL (Sustainable Buildings Tool)	64
	3.5.3.3 Green Globes	64
	3.5.3.4 LEED® (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design)	65
	3.5.3.5 CASBEE (Comprehensive Assessment System for Building Environmental Efficiency)	66
	3.6 Discussion	66
	References	68
	4 Challenges and Priorities for a Sustainable Built Environment in Southern Europe—The Impact of Energy Efficiency Measures and Renewable Energies on Employment	70
	Abstract	70
	4.1 Introduction	70
	4.2 The Built Environment—Defining the Challenges and Priorities in Southern Europe	72
	4.2.1 Fighting Economic and Social Stratification Discrimination Through Energy Investment	74
	4.3 Conclusions	79
	References	83
	5 Indicators for Buildings’ Energy Performance	85
	Abstract	85
	5.1 Introduction	85
	5.1.1 Background	87
	5.1.1.1 Buildings’ Energy Analysis	87
	5.1.2 European Landscape	88
	5.2 The Resulting Taxonomy	90
	5.3 Decision-Making Framework	93
	5.4 Findings	94
	5.5 Discussion	96
	References	97
	6 Life Cycle Versus Carbon Footprint Analysis for Construction Materials	100
	Abstract	100
	6.1 Introduction	100
	6.2 Methodological Approach	102
	6.3 Results and Discussion	105
	6.4 Conclusions	108
	References	109
	7 Economic Experiments Used for the Evaluation of Building Users’ Energy-Saving Behavior	112
	Abstract	112
	7.1 Introduction	113
	7.2 Literature Review	114
	7.3 Experimental Design	116
	7.4 Results	119
	7.5 Conclusions	124
	7.6 Further Investigations	125
	References	126
	8 Technologies and Socio-economic Strategies to nZEB in the Building Stock of the Mediterranean Area	127
	Abstract	127
	8.1 Towards Nearly Zero Energy Urban Settings in the Mediterranean Climate	128
	8.1.1 State of the Art and Crucial Issues in the Urban Environment of the Mediterranean Areas. A Case Study of the Athens Metropolitan Area (AMA)	128
	8.1.2 Policy Background and Zero Energy Case Studies	130
	8.1.3 Low Carbon Communities and Grass-Roots Initiatives in the Urban Environment	131
	8.2 Towards “Nearly Zero Energy” and Socio-oriented Urban Settings in the Mediterranean Climate	132
	8.3 Energy Retrofitting Scenarios of Existing Buildings to Achieve nZEBs: The Case Study of the Peristeri Workers’ Houses’ Urban Compound	134
	8.3.1 Energy Performance Evaluation in the Buildings as Built	138
	8.3.2 Energy Retrofitting Scenarios of Existing Buildings in the Peristeri Urban Compound	155
	8.3.3 Cost-Benefit Analysis	155
	8.3.4 First Conclusions on the Peristeri Urban Compound and Further Design Scenarios	156
	8.3.5 Energy and Cost Benefits of Volumetric Addition in Energy Retrofitting Actions	156
	8.3.6 Low Versus High Transformation Retrofitting Options Towards Near Zero Energy in Existing Buildings	159
	8.4 Conclusions	161
	References	164
	Part II The Built Environment	168
	9 Households: Trends and Perspectives	169
	Abstract	169
	9.1 Introduction	169
	9.2 Analysis of Data in the Crisis Period	170
	9.2.1 Household Energy Consumption	170
	9.2.2 Population Change	174
	9.2.3 Building Stock	175
	9.2.4 Greenhouse Gas Emissions	179
	9.2.5 Discussion of Data	180
	9.3 Housing and Living Quality	184
	9.3.1 Overcrowding Rate	184
	9.3.2 Severe Housing Deprivation Rate	185
	9.3.3 Housing Cost Overburden Rate	190
	9.4 Energy Poverty	190
	9.4.1 Inability to Keep Homes Adequately Warm	192
	9.4.2 People Living in Dwellings with Poor Conditions	192
	9.4.3 Difficulties Paying the Bills	197
	9.4.4 Population Living in Uncomfortable Dwellings	197
	9.5 Conclusions	201
	References	203
	10 Office BuildingsCommercial Buildings: Trends and Perspectives	205
	Abstract	205
	10.1 Introduction	205
	10.2 The Zero Energy Buildings’ Perspectives in the Mediterranean Region	206
	10.3 Office Buildings as ZEB in the Mediterranean Region	208
	10.3.1 Office Building in Crete, Greece	209
	10.3.2 Laboratory Building in Cyprus	210
	10.4 Conclusions and Future Prospects	216
	References	217
	11 Energy Efficiency in Hospitals: Historical Development, Trends and Perspectives	219
	Abstract	219
	11.1 Introduction: On the Evolution of Hospital Buildings	219
	11.2 On the Use of Energy in Hospitals	221
	11.3 Thermal Comfort, Indoor Air Quality, and Hygiene	226
	11.4 Improving Energy Efficiency and Reducing Energy Costs: Energy Optimization	227
	11.4.1 Monitoring of Energy Efficiency	230
	11.4.2 Analysis of Energy Consumption	230
	11.4.3 Energy Optimization	230
	11.5 Conclusions	233
	References	234
	12 The Hotel Industry: Current Situation and Its Steps Beyond Sustainability	236
	Abstract	236
	12.1 Introduction	236
	12.2 An Overview of Energy Performance in Hotels	237
	12.2.1 Tourism in Countries with Temperate Climates	239
	12.2.2 Basic Figures for the Greek Sector	239
	12.3 Features of the Hotel Industry in Countries with Temperate Climates	241
	12.4 Beyond Energy: Hotels and Sustainability	246
	12.5 Conclusions	247
	References	248
	13 Schools: Trends and Perspectives	252
	Abstract	252
	13.1 Introduction	252
	13.2 Methodology	254
	13.3 Schools’ Building Stock Data	255
	13.4 Pilot Schools’ Comfort and Energy Performance Investigation	259
	13.4.1 Indoor Environmental Conditions	260
	13.4.1.1 Studies Comparing Thermal Comfort and Energy Efficiency	261
	13.5 Field Measurements of Climatic Parameters in a Typical School Building	263
	13.6 Energy Simulations and Upgrade Scenarios of a Typical School	265
	13.7 Conclusions	267
	References	268
	Part III Building’s Design and Systems	270
	14 New Challenges in Covering Buildings’ Thermal Load	271
	Abstract	271
	14.1 Introduction	271
	14.1.1 Defining Building Energy Supply Technologies	273
	14.1.2 Building Energy Supply Technologies in Temperate Climates	275
	14.1.3 Building Energy Systems in Retrofitting	275
	14.2 Shifting the Paradigm	276
	14.2.1 The Zero Energy Building Agenda and the Regulatory Environment	276
	14.2.2 The Smart Decarbonized Grid Landscape and the Connected Building	278
	14.2.3 Thermal Comfort and Energy Supply	279
	14.3 Energy Technologies for Building Supply	281
	14.3.1 The Heat-Power Nexus (Interdependency of Electrical and Thermal Energy in the Built Environment)	282
	14.3.2 Emerging Building Energy Systems	284
	14.3.2.1 Microgeneration (or the Distributed Generation Narrative)	284
	14.3.2.2 Heat Pumps	285
	14.3.2.3 Solar Thermal Collectors	285
	14.3.2.4 Energy Storage (Thermal)	286
	14.3.3 Building Energy Management Systems	288
	14.4 Envisioning the Building of the Future (Is the All-Electric Building the Future?)	289
	References	289
	15 Energy Technologies for Building Supply Systems: MCHP	291
	Abstract	291
	15.1 Introduction	291
	15.2 Prime Mover Technologies and Market Survey	296
	15.2.1 Reciprocating Internal Combustion Engines (ICE)	297
	15.2.2 Reciprocating External Combustion Stirling Engines (SE)	300
	15.2.3 Fuel Cells (FC)	302
	15.2.4 Gas and Steam Micro-turbines (MT)	303
	15.2.5 Photovoltaic Thermal (PVT) Generators	304
	15.3 Operating Schemes	305
	15.4 Regulatory Framework	310
	15.4.1 Micro-cogeneration Testing Procedures	311
	15.4.2 State of the Art: Experimental Results and Simulation Tools	312
	15.5 ConclusionsDiscussion	314
	References	315
	16 The State of the Art for Technologies Used to Decrease Demand in Buildings: Thermal Energy Storage	319
	Abstract	319
	16.1 Introduction	319
	16.2 Materials Used for TES in Buildings	320
	16.2.1 Sensible Heat	321
	16.2.2 Latent Heat	322
	16.2.3 Thermochemical Reactions	325
	16.3 Passive Technologies	326
	16.3.1 Introduction	326
	16.3.2 Sensible Passive Systems	326
	16.3.2.1 Integration in Building Components	326
	16.3.3 Latent Passive Systems	329
	16.3.3.1 Integration in the Building	329
	16.3.3.2 Environmental Impact	332
	16.4 Active Systems	332
	16.4.1 Introduction	332
	16.4.2 Free-Cooling Systems	332
	16.4.3 Building Integrated Active Systems	333
	16.4.3.1 Integration of the TES Into the Core of the Building	334
	16.4.3.2 Integration of the TES in External Façades	336
	16.4.3.3 Integration of the TES in Suspended Ceilings and Ventilation Systems	337
	16.4.3.4 Integration of the TES in the PV System	338
	16.4.3.5 Integration of the TES in Water Tanks	338
	16.4.4 Use of TES in Heat Pumps	339
	16.5 Conclusions	341
	References	342
	17 Solar Thermal Systems	349
	Abstract	349
	17.1 Introduction	349
	17.1.1 Solar Energy Collectors	350
	17.1.1.1 Solar Water Heating Collectors	351
	17.1.1.2 Flat-Plate Collector	351
	17.1.1.3 Heat Pipe Evacuated Tube Collector	353
	17.1.1.4 Water-in-Glass Evacuated Tube Collector	353
	17.1.2 Solar Air Heating Collectors	354
	17.1.2.1 Unglazed Solar Air Heating Collector	354
	17.1.2.2 Glazed Solar Air Heating Collector	355
	17.1.3 Solar Water Heating Systems	357
	17.1.4 Forced Circulation SWHS	359
	17.1.5 Thermosyphon SWHS	360
	17.2 Solar Thermal Cooling Systems	361
	17.2.1 Solar Absorption Cooling System	362
	17.2.2 Solar Adsorption Cooling System	364
	17.2.3 Solar Desiccant Cooling Systems	365
	17.2.4 Solar Ejector Cooling System	365
	17.2.5 Advantages and Disadvantages	366
	17.2.6 Overview of Solar Cooling Systems	366
	17.2.7 Solar Cooling System Costs	368
	17.3 Solar Air Heating System	369
	17.3.1 Solar Absorption Heat Pump System	370
	17.4 Building Integrated Solar Thermal Systems	372
	17.4.1 Façade Integrations	372
	17.4.2 Roof Integrated Systems	373
	17.4.3 Balconies and Walls	373
	References	373
	18 Solar Energy for Building Supply	376
	Abstract	376
	18.1 Introduction	376
	18.2 PV Modules and Cells	377
	18.2.1 Electricity Production	377
	18.2.2 The Components	378
	18.2.3 Dependency of Energy Generated on System Installation	380
	18.2.4 Production	381
	18.2.5 Integration of Solar Modules in Buildings	381
	18.3 ?ypes of PV Cells	381
	18.3.1 Types of PV Cells Depending on the Semiconductor Material	382
	18.3.2 Types of PV Cells According to the Type of Junction	383
	18.3.3 Types of PV Cells According to the Method of Manufacture	384
	18.3.4 Types of PV Cells According to the Devices of the System that Utilizes Solar Radiation	384
	18.3.5 Semitransparent Modules (Crystalline Glass-Glass Module)	385
	18.4 I–V Curve and Losses	386
	18.4.1 Characteristic I–V Curve of a PV Cell—Power Curve	386
	18.5 Types of Building Integration	388
	18.6 Conclusion	396
	References	396
	19 The State of the Art for Technologies Used to Decrease Demand in Buildings: Thermal Insulation	398
	Abstract	398
	19.1 Thermal Insulation Materials	398
	19.2 Foamed Materials	399
	19.3 Fibrous Materials	400
	19.4 Construction Solutions	404
	19.4.1 Vertical Building Elements	405
	19.4.2 Horizontal Building Elements	407
	19.5 Conclusions	413
	Reference	413
	20 Cool Materials	414
	Abstract	414
	20.1 Introduction	414
	20.2 Construction Materials Under Solar Radiation	416
	20.2.1 Construction and Building Solutions for Cool Applications	418
	20.3 Cool Materials for Building Applications	420
	20.3.1 White and Light-Colored Materials	420
	20.3.2 Cool Colored Materials	421
	20.3.3 Advanced Materials	423
	20.4 Cool Materials for Urban Applications	424
	20.5 Potentialities of Cool Materials Applications	426
	20.5.1 Saving Energy with Cool Roofs	426
	20.5.2 Mitigating the Urban Temperatures with Cool Materials	428
	20.6 Cool Roofs Case Studies	429
	20.6.1 Senior Recreation Building in Rome, Italy	429
	20.6.2 OfficeSchool Building in Trapani, Sicily, Italy	430
	20.6.3 School Building in Athens, Greece	432
	20.6.4 School Building in Heraklion, Crete, Greece	432
	Bibliography	433
	21 Shading and Daylight Systems	436
	Abstract	436
	21.1 Introduction	436
	21.2 Shading	444
	21.3 Daylight Systems	449
	21.3.1 Lightshelf	452
	21.3.2 Blinds	453
	21.3.3 Daylight Transporting Systems	459
	21.3.4 Heliostat	462
	References	464
	22 The State of the Art for Technologies Used to Decrease Demand in Buildings: Electric Lighting	466
	Abstract	466
	22.1 Energy Consumption by Electric Lighting	466
	22.2 Policies and Standards	468
	22.3 Energy Performance Factors for Lighting Installations	469
	22.4 Maintenance and Life Cycle	472
	22.5 Comparison of Technologies	473
	22.5.1 Lamps	473
	22.5.1.1 LED Replacement Lamps	475
	22.5.2 Luminaires	475
	22.5.3 LED Luminaires	475
	22.5.4 OLED Luminaires	476
	22.6 Daylighting Utilization	477
	22.7 Lighting Design	477
	22.8 Conclusions	480
	Reference	480
	Part IV The Microclimatic Environment	481
	23 Tools and Strategies for Microclimatic Analysis of the Built Environment	482
	Abstract	482
	23.1 Introduction	482
	23.2 Köppen-Geiger Climate Classification	483
	23.3 Orientation Analysis	485
	23.4 Passive Design Strategies for Mediterranean Climate	486
	23.5 Passive Design Strategies for Mediterranean Climate	488
	23.6 Climograms—Case Study of Barcelona	489
	23.7 Summary of Design Strategies for Mediterranean Cities	492
	23.8 Passive Strategies for Winter	494
	23.9 Conclusion	494
	References	495
	24 Microclimatic Improvement	496
	Abstract	496
	24.1 Introduction	497
	24.2 Defining Microclimate	498
	24.2.1 Properties of Mediterranean Climate	498
	24.2.2 Meso-Scale Conditions	500
	24.2.2.1 Topography	500
	24.2.2.2 Wind	500
	24.2.2.3 Bodies of Water	500
	24.2.2.4 Vegetation	500
	24.2.2.5 Artificial Elements	501
	24.2.3 Main Physical Parameters on the Local Scale	501
	24.3 Mediterranean Settlement and Microclimate	503
	24.4 Strategies in Microclimatic Improvement	506
	24.4.1 Building as Modifier of Microclimate (North America 1910–1948)	506
	24.4.2 Sequences of Dampening Spaces (Andalusia 9th–14th Centuries)	508
	24.4.3 Collaboration Between Construction and Microclimate (Corse 2011)	510
	24.4.4 Social Spaces and Evapotranspiration (Castile 2004)	512
	24.4.5 Blurring and Dematerialization (Southern France 1961 and 2003–2007)	513
	24.5 Conclusions	517
	References	518
	25 Modelling and Bioclimatic Interventions in Outdoor Spaces	520
	Abstract	520
	25.1 Introduction	520
	25.2 The Optimum Modelling Tool	522
	25.3 Using Computational Fluid Dynamics in the Bioclimatic Design of Open Spaces in Two Greek Cities	523
	25.3.1 Bioclimatic Thermal Problem	523
	25.3.2 Bioclimatic Interventions	524
	25.3.3 Model Verification	524
	25.3.4 Comparison of the Mean Maximum Air Temperature	527
	25.3.5 Comparison of the Mean Surface Temperatures	529
	25.4 Urban Microclimatic Improvement Effects on Building Blocks’ Energy Consumption by the Use of Energy Simulation	531
	25.5 The Optimum Modeling Scheme in Bioclimatic Design	533
	25.6 Conclusions	534
	References	535
	Index	538