Preface	6
	Acknowledgements	8
	About the Author	9
	Contents	11
	Abbreviations	14
	Chapter 1 - Introduction to Wetland Systems	16
	1.1 Background	16
	1.2 Definitions	18
	1.3 Hydrology of Wetlands	18
	1.4 Wetland Chemistry	20
	1.5 Wetland System Mass Balance	23
	1.6 Macrophytes in Wetlands	24
	1.7 Physical and Biochemical Parameters	26
	1.8 Constructed Treatment Wetlands	27
	1.9 Constructed Wetlands Used for Storm Water Treatment	28
	References	31
	Chapter 2 - Wetland Case Studies	33
	2.1 Integrated Constructed Wetlands for Treating Domestic Wastewater	33
	2.1.1 Introduction	33
	2.1.2 Materials and Methods	35
	2.1.2.1 Site Description	35
	2.1.2.2 Sampling and Analytical Methods	38
	2.1.2.3 Statistical Analyses	40
	2.1.3 Results and Discussion	40
	2.1.3.1 Water Quality of the ICW System in Glaslough	40
	2.1.3.2 Receiving Stream Water Quality	43
	2.1.3.3 Groundwater Quality	44
	2.1.3.4 Comparison of Nutrient Removal Performances	45
	2.1.3.5 Comparison of Nutrient Reduction in Wetland Cells	46
	2.1.4 Conclusions and Further Research Needs	50
	2.2 Guidelines for Farmyard Runoff Treatment with Wetlands	50
	2.2.1 Introduction	50
	2.2.2 Farm Constructed Wetlands: Definition and Background	52
	2.2.2.1 Introduction	52
	2.2.2.2 Effluent Types and Processes	52
	2.2.2.3 Functions, Values, and Principles	53
	2.2.2.4 Benefits of Farm Constructed Wetlands	54
	2.2.2.5 Limitations of Farm Constructed Wetlands	55
	2.2.3 Farm Constructed Wetland Site Suitability	55
	2.2.3.1 Effluent to Be Treated	55
	2.2.3.2 Site Characteristics	56
	2.2.3.3 Discharge Options	58
	2.2.4 Design Guidelines for Farm Constructed Wetlands	59
	2.2.4.1 Background and Water Treatment Requirements	59
	2.2.4.2 Runoff Capture and Conveyance	60
	2.2.4.3 Hydraulics, Water Balance, and Residence Time	60
	2.2.4.4 Wetland Sizing, Inlet, and Outlet	61
	2.2.4.5 Landscape Fit, Biodiversity, and Life Span	61
	2.2.5 Construction and Planting	62
	2.2.5.1 Construction	62
	2.2.5.2 Planting	64
	2.2.6 Maintenance and Operation	65
	2.2.6.1 Pipe Maintenance and Flow Control	65
	2.2.6.2 Vegetation and Sediment Maintenance	66
	2.2.6.3 Safety, Security, and Maintenance	66
	2.2.6.4 Monitoring the Final Effluent and Receiving Watercourses	67
	2.2.7 Conclusions	67
	2.3 Integrated Constructed Wetland for Treating Farmyard Runoff	68
	2.3.1 Introduction	68
	2.3.2 Material and Methods	69
	2.3.2.1 Site Description	69
	2.3.2.2 ICW Design	70
	2.3.2.3 Sampling and Analytical Methods	71
	2.3.2.4 Statistical Analyses and Limitations	74
	2.3.3 Results and Discussion	75
	2.3.3.1 Water Quality	75
	2.3.3.2 Comparison of Annual Treatment Performances	75
	2.3.3.3 Seasonal Performance	76
	2.3.3.4 Flows	77
	2.3.3.5 Receiving Stream Water Quality	78
	2.3.3.6 Groundwater Quality	79
	2.3.3.7 Nitrogen Transformations Within the Sediment	80
	2.3.3.8 Integrated Constructed Wetland Sizing for Nutrient Reduction	81
	2.3.3.9 Overall Catchment Characteristics	81
	2.3.3.10 Soft Criteria	86
	2.3.4 Conclusions	86
	2.4 Integrated Constructed Wetlands for TreatingSwine Wastewater	87
	2.4.1 Introduction and Agricultural Practice	87
	2.4.2 International Design Guidelines: Global Scenario	88
	2.4.2.1 American Guidelines	88
	2.4.2.2 Other Guidelines	91
	2.4.2.3 Recent Innovations	92
	2.4.3 Operations	94
	2.4.3.1 Loading and Flow Rates	94
	2.4.3.2 Water Depth	95
	2.4.3.3 Pretreatment of Wastewater	95
	2.4.4 Macrophytes and Rural Biodiversity	97
	2.4.4.1 Macrophyte Types and Characteristics	97
	2.4.4.2 Toxicity Tolerance Thresholds	98
	2.4.5 Nutrients	99
	2.4.5.1 Nutrient Transformation Processes	99
	2.4.5.2 Phosphorus	101
	2.4.6 Pathogens, Odor, and Human Health	102
	2.4.7 Conclusions and Further Research Needs	103
	2.5 Wetlands to Control Runoff from Wood Storage Sites	103
	2.5.1 Introduction and Objectives	103
	2.5.2 Pollution Potential of Runoff from Wood Handling Sites	105
	2.5.2.1 Reasons for Pollution Generation at Wood Handling Sites	105
	2.5.2.2 Characteristics of Runoff	106
	2.5.2.3 Effects of Runoff on Receiving Watercourses	108
	2.5.3 Treatment Methods	109
	2.5.3.1 Overview of Applied Treatment Technologies and Methods	109
	2.5.3.2 Soil Infiltration	110
	2.5.3.3 Wetland Treatment	111
	2.5.3.4 Other Treatment Methods	113
	2.5.3.5 Treatments Used for Organic Matter in Pulp and Paper Mill Wastewater	114
	2.5.4 Discussion, Conclusions, and Further Research	116
	2.5.4.1 Discussion Concerning the Cost-effectivenessof the Treatment Methods	116
	2.5.4.2 Summary of Conclusions	117
	2.5.4.3 Further Recommended Research	118
	2.6 Wetlands for Treating Hydrocarbons	119
	2.6.1 Introduction	119
	2.6.1.1 Constructed Treatment Wetlands	119
	2.6.1.2 Benzene Removal	120
	2.6.1.3 Novelty, Aim, and Objectives	122
	2.6.2 Materials and Methods	122
	2.6.2.1 Experimental System Design and Operation	122
	2.6.2.2 Biodegradation and Volatilization Determination	126
	2.6.3 Results and Discussion	127
	2.6.3.1 Treatment Performance Comparisons	127
	2.6.3.2 Impact of Volatilization	127
	2.6.4 Conclusions	129
	References	129
	Chapter 3 - Carbon Storage and Fluxes Within Wetland Systems	141
	3.1 Introduction	141
	3.1.1 Wetlands and Processes	141
	3.1.2 Global Warming	142
	3.1.3 Purpose and Review Methodology	143
	3.2 Carbon Turnover and Removal Mechanisms	143
	3.2.1 Carbon Turnover	143
	3.2.2 Carbon Components	144
	3.2.3 Carbon Removal Mechanisms	144
	3.3 Are Wetlands Carbon Sources or Sinks?	146
	3.3.1 Wetlands as Carbon Sources	146
	3.3.2 Wetlands as Carbon Sinks	150
	3.4 Impact of Global Warming on Wetlands	152
	3.5 Conclusions and Further Research Needs	154
	References	154
	Chapter 4 - Wetlands and Sustainable Drainage	162
	4.1 Rapid Assessment Methodology for the Survey of Water Bodies	162
	4.1.1 Introduction	162
	4.1.1.1 Background	162
	4.1.1.2 Rationale for Rapid Survey Method	163
	4.1.1.3 Manpower and Equipment Requirements	164
	4.1.1.4 Survey Template	165
	4.1.1.5 Sustainable Flood Retention Basin Typology	166
	4.1.2 How to Use This Guidance Manual	166
	4.1.3 Assessment of Classification Variables	167
	4.1.3.1 Overview	167
	4.1.3.2 Engineered (%)	167
	4.1.3.3 Dam Height (m)	168
	4.1.3.4 Dam Length (m)	168
	4.1.3.5 Outlet Arrangement (%)	168
	4.1.3.6 Aquatic Animal Passage (%)	169
	4.1.3.7 Land Animal Passage (%)	170
	4.1.3.8 Flood Plain Elevation (m)	171
	4.1.3.9 Basin Channel Connectivity (m)	171
	4.1.3.10 Wetness (%)	172
	4.1.3.11 Proportion of Flow Within the Channel (%)	172
	4.1.3.12 Mean Flooding Depth (m)	173
	4.1.3.13 Typical Wetness Duration (d/a)	173
	4.1.3.14 Flood Duration (d/a)	173
	4.1.3.15 Basin Bed Gradient (%)	174
	4.1.3.16 Mean Basin Flood Velocity (cm/s)	174
	4.1.3.17 Wetted Perimeter (m)	174
	4.1.3.18 Maximum Flood Water Volume (m^3)	174
	4.1.3.19 Flood Water Surface Area (m^2)	175
	4.1.3.20 Mean Annual Rainfall (mm)	175
	4.1.3.21 Drainage (cm/d)	175
	4.1.3.22 Impermeable Soil Proportion (%)	176
	4.1.3.23 Seasonal Influence (%)	176
	4.1.3.24 Altitude (m)	177
	4.1.3.25 Vegetation Cover (%)	177
	4.1.3.26 Algal Cover in Summer (%)	177
	4.1.3.27 Relative Total Pollution (%)	178
	4.1.3.28 Mean Sediment Depth (cm)	179
	4.1.3.29 Organic Sediment Proportion (%)	179
	4.1.3.30 Flotsam Cover (%)	180
	4.1.3.31 Catchment Size (km^2)	181
	4.1.3.32 Urban Catchment Proportion (%)	181
	4.1.3.33 Arable Catchment Proportion (%)	182
	4.1.3.34 Pasture Catchment Proportion (%)	182
	4.1.3.35 Viniculture Catchment Proportion (%)	182
	4.1.3.36 Forest Catchment Proportion (%)	183
	4.1.3.37 Natural Catchment Proportion (%)	183
	4.1.3.38 Groundwater Infiltration (%)	183
	4.1.3.39 Mean Depth of Basin	184
	4.1.3.40 Length of Basin (m)	184
	4.1.3.41 Width of Basin (m)	185
	4.1.4 Bias and Purpose	185
	4.1.4.1 Overview	185
	4.1.4.2 Dominant Hydraulic Purpose	185
	4.1.4.3 Drinking Water Supply	185
	4.1.4.4 Production Industry	186
	4.1.4.5 Sustainable Drainage	186
	4.1.4.6 Environmental Protection	186
	4.1.4.7 Recreational Benefits	187
	4.1.4.8 Landscape Aesthetics	187
	4.1.5 Presentation of Findings Using Geostatistics	187
	4.2 Classification of Sustainable Flood Retention Basin Types	190
	4.2.1 Introduction and Objectives	190
	4.2.2 Methodology	192
	4.2.2.1 Identification of Sites and Definitions	192
	4.2.2.2 Identification of Classification Variables	196
	4.2.2.3 Rationale for the Elimination of Less Relevant Variables	198
	4.2.2.4 Assignment of Sustainable Flood Retention Basin Types with the Help of Cluster Analyses	198
	4.2.3 Findings and Discussion	199
	4.2.3.1 Reduction Exercise for Classification Variables	199
	4.2.3.2 Cluster Analyses	200
	4.2.3.3 Groupings Based on Cluster Analysis	200
	4.2.3.4 Application of Classification Methodology to Scotland	201
	4.2.4 Conclusions	202
	4.3 Combined Wetland and Detention Systems	202
	4.3.1 Introduction	202
	4.3.1.1 Background	202
	4.3.1.2 Microbial Contamination	203
	4.3.1.3 Modeling Approaches	205
	4.3.1.4 Aim and Objectives	205
	4.3.2 Methodology	205
	4.3.2.1 Experimental System Set-up	205
	4.3.2.2 Data Set	207
	4.3.2.3 Modeling	207
	4.3.2.4 Development of the Artificial Neural Network Model	209
	4.3.3 Results and Discussion	211
	4.3.3.1 Inflow and Outflow Water Quality	211
	4.3.3.2 Multiple Linear Regression Analyses	211
	4.3.3.3 Analyses of Variance	212
	4.3.3.4 Artificial Neural Network Modeling	212
	4.3.4 Conclusions	213
	4.4 Integration of Trees into Drainage Planning	214
	4.4.1 Introduction	214
	4.4.1.1 Background	214
	4.4.1.2 Traditional and Sustainable Urban Drainage	216
	4.4.1.3 Aim and Objectives	216
	4.4.2 Methodology	217
	4.4.3 Results and Discussion	218
	4.4.3.1 Lack of Tree Integration into Urban Drainage Systems	218
	4.4.3.2 Rainfall and Land Use Characteristics	218
	4.4.3.3 Rainfall Interception	219
	4.4.3.4 Application of the Sustainable Urban Drainage System Decision Support Model	220
	4.4.3.5 Design Recommendations	222
	4.4.4 Conclusions	224
	References	225
	Chapter 5 - Modeling Complex Wetland Systems	230
	5.1 Introduction	230
	5.2 Methodology and Software	232
	5.2.1 Case Study Sites	232
	5.2.2 Data and Variables	233
	5.2.3 Statistical Analyses	233
	5.2.4 Self-organizing Map	234
	5.3 Results and Discussion	236
	5.3.1 Overall Performance	236
	5.3.2 Model Application to Assess Nutrient Removal	237
	5.3.3 Nitrogen and Phosphorus Predictions	240
	5.4 Conclusions	242
	References	243
	Index	245