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Preface |
5 |
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Contents |
7 |
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Chapter 1: Understanding Asphaltene Aggregation and Precipitation Through Theoretical and Computational Studies |
9 |
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1.1 Introduction |
10 |
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1.2 Experiment Studies |
11 |
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1.3 Theoretical Studies |
15 |
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1.3.1 Theoretical Modeling of Asphaltene Aggregation |
15 |
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1.3.2 Theoretical Modeling of Asphaltene Precipitation |
16 |
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1.3.2.1 Models Based on Colloidal Theory |
17 |
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1.3.2.2 Models Based on Solubility Theory |
18 |
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Models Based on Regular Solution Theory |
19 |
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Models Based on Equation of State Methods |
24 |
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1.4 Computational Studies |
27 |
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1.4.1 Studies Using QM Approach |
33 |
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1.4.2 Studies Using MM and MD Approaches |
35 |
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1.4.2.1 Studies Using MM Approach |
35 |
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1.4.2.2 Studies Using MD Approach |
36 |
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1.4.3 Studies Using Mesoscopic Simulation Techniques |
42 |
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1.5 Summary and Future Perspectives |
43 |
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References |
43 |
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Chapter 2: Advancement in Numerical Simulations of Gas Hydrate Dissociation in Porous Media |
56 |
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2.1 Introduction |
57 |
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2.2 Background |
58 |
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2.2.1 Introduction to Gas Hydrates |
58 |
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2.2.2 Existing Research on Gas Hydrates |
59 |
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2.2.3 Numerical Simulations of Gas Hydrates |
61 |
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2.3 Basic Mechanisms in Hydrate Disassociation: Governing Equation System |
64 |
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2.3.1 Basic Mechanisms Involved in Gas Hydrate Dissociation |
64 |
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2.3.2 A Unified Mathematical Framework for Different Mechanisms |
66 |
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2.3.3 Classification of Existing Methods |
69 |
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2.3.4 Comparison and Integration |
71 |
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2.3.4.1 Classifications Based on Criteria 1, 2, and 3 |
71 |
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2.3.4.2 Classifications Based on Criteria 4 |
76 |
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2.4 Materials Properties for Gas Hydrate Modeling: Auxiliary Relationships |
78 |
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2.4.1 Material Properties Related to Heat Transfer |
79 |
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2.4.1.1 Heat Capacity |
80 |
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2.4.1.2 Thermal Conductivity |
81 |
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2.4.1.3 Thermal Diffusivity |
83 |
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2.4.2 Material Properties Related to Mass Transfer |
83 |
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2.4.2.1 Absolute Permeability and Permeability Considering Hydrate Saturation |
84 |
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2.4.2.2 Relative Permeability |
85 |
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2.4.2.3 Capillary Pressure-Saturation Relationship |
86 |
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2.4.2.4 Diffusion Coefficients |
87 |
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2.4.2.5 Hydraulic Diffusivity |
88 |
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2.4.2.6 Mass Transfer Between Phases |
88 |
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2.4.3 Material Properties Related to Chemical Reactions |
89 |
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2.4.3.1 Thermodynamic State |
89 |
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2.4.3.2 Equilibrium: Phase Diagram |
90 |
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2.4.3.3 Kinetic: Dissociation Kinetics |
92 |
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2.4.4 Material Parameters for Momentum Balance |
94 |
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2.4.4.1 Solid: Geomechanical Properties, Solid-Fluid Coupling, Constitutive Relations |
94 |
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2.4.4.2 Liquid: Darcy´s Law, Viscosity |
96 |
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2.4.4.3 Solid-Liquid Interaction: Stress Formulation |
97 |
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2.5 Discussions |
98 |
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2.5.1 Validation of the Performance of Existing Models |
99 |
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2.5.1.1 Validations by Experiments |
99 |
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2.5.1.2 Mutual Validation Between Models |
100 |
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2.5.1.3 Applications |
100 |
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2.5.2 Suggestion on Practice Production by Model Simulations |
101 |
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2.5.2.1 Recovery Schemes |
101 |
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2.5.2.2 Critical Factors in Recovery |
102 |
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2.5.2.3 Governing Mechanisms for Hydrate Dissociation |
104 |
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2.5.3 Research Trends and Future Needs |
105 |
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2.5.3.1 Physical Fields |
105 |
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2.5.3.2 Phases and Components |
105 |
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2.5.3.3 Equilibrium Versus Kinetic Models |
105 |
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2.5.3.4 Environmental Effects |
106 |
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2.6 Conclusion |
107 |
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References |
108 |
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Chapter 3: Discrete Element Modeling of the Role of In Situ Stress on the Interactions Between Hydraulic and Natural Fractures |
119 |
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3.1 Introduction |
119 |
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3.2 Discrete Element Method |
120 |
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3.3 Representing Discrete Fracture |
121 |
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3.4 Hydromechanical Coupling |
122 |
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3.5 PKN Model Simulation |
123 |
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3.6 Hydraulic (HF) and Natural (NF) Fracture Interaction |
128 |
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3.7 Parametric Study: Reference Model |
129 |
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3.7.1 Anisotropic Stress Field |
131 |
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3.7.2 Effect of Different Orientation of the NF |
134 |
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3.7.3 Effect of Different Orientation of a Dilatant NF Combined with Higher Anisotropic Stress Field |
138 |
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3.8 Conclusions |
139 |
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References |
140 |
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Chapter 4: Rock Physics Modeling in Conventional Reservoirs |
143 |
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4.1 Review of Geophysical Concepts |
143 |
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4.2 Empirical Relations |
145 |
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4.3 Solid Phase |
148 |
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4.4 Fluid Phase |
151 |
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4.5 Dry Rock Properties |
153 |
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4.5.1 Granular Media Models |
155 |
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4.5.2 Inclusion Models |
156 |
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4.6 Saturated Rock Properties |
159 |
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4.7 Example |
161 |
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4.8 Other Rock Physics Models |
162 |
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4.9 Rock Physics Inversion |
164 |
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References |
168 |
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Chapter 5: Geomechanics and Elastic Anisotropy of Shale Formations |
170 |
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5.1 Introduction |
170 |
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5.2 Theory of Anisotropy |
172 |
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5.2.1 Elastic Anisotropy |
172 |
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5.2.2 Classification of Anisotropic Media |
172 |
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5.2.3 VTI Medium |
173 |
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5.2.4 Shale Anisotropy |
174 |
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5.2.5 Case Study |
175 |
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5.3 Fundamentals of Geomechanical Modeling for Wellbore Instability |
179 |
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5.3.1 Chemically Induced Instability |
179 |
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5.3.2 Mechanically Induced Instability |
179 |
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5.3.3 Factors Influencing Wellbore Stability |
179 |
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5.3.4 In Situ Stress Field |
180 |
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5.3.5 Wellbore Pressure |
181 |
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5.3.6 Fractures and Damages in the Formation |
181 |
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5.3.7 Thermal Effect |
182 |
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5.3.8 Fluid Flow into the Wellbore |
182 |
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5.3.9 Chemical Effects (in Shales) |
182 |
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5.3.10 Numerical Modeling of Wellbore Stability |
183 |
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5.3.10.1 Elastic Models |
183 |
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5.3.10.2 Elastoplastic and Poro-elastoplastic Models |
184 |
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5.3.10.3 Stress Distribution Around the Wellbore |
184 |
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5.3.10.4 Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion |
187 |
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The Minimum Wellbore Pressure |
187 |
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The Maximum Wellbore Pressure |
188 |
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Elastoplastic Stress Analysis |
188 |
|
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5.3.10.5 Wellbore Stability in Laminated (VTI) Formations |
191 |
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Anisotropic Strength Model |
191 |
|
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5.4 Anisotropic Geomechanical Modeling Case Study-Bakken Formation |
193 |
|
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5.4.1 Anisotropy in Geomechanical Modeling |
193 |
|
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5.4.1.1 Vertical Stress |
194 |
|
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5.4.1.2 Pore Pressure |
195 |
|
|
5.4.1.3 Horizontal Stress |
195 |
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5.4.1.4 Anisotropic Elastic Parameters |
196 |
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5.4.1.5 Stress Profile |
197 |
|
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5.4.1.6 Maximum Horizontal Principal Stress (Second Approach) |
199 |
|
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5.4.1.7 Maximum Principal Horizontal Stress Orientation |
200 |
|
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5.4.2 3D Numerical Modeling |
201 |
|
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5.4.2.1 Vertical Well (0 Deviation Angle) |
201 |
|
|
5.4.2.2 Inclined Well (45 Attack Angle) (Figs.5.26, 5.27, 5.28, and 5.29) |
205 |
|
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5.5 Summary and Recommendations |
209 |
|
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References |
210 |
|
|
Chapter 6: Nano-Scale Characterization of Organic-Rich Shale via Indentation Methods |
213 |
|
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6.1 Introduction |
214 |
|
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6.2 Multi-scale Thought Model for Shale |
214 |
|
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6.3 Experimental Procedure |
216 |
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6.3.1 Materials |
216 |
|
|
6.3.2 Grinding and Polishing |
216 |
|
|
6.3.3 Roughness Characterization |
220 |
|
|
6.4 Mechanical Properties |
221 |
|
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6.4.1 Elastic Properties |
221 |
|
|
6.4.2 Indentation Equipment |
222 |
|
|
6.4.3 Indentation Experiment |
223 |
|
|
6.4.4 Statistical Nano-Indentation |
225 |
|
|
6.4.5 Elastic Mechanical Homogenization |
232 |
|
|
6.5 Conclusion and Future Perspectives |
234 |
|
|
References |
235 |
|
|
7: On the Production Analysis of a Multi-Fractured Horizontal Well |
238 |
|
|
7.1 Introduction |
239 |
|
|
7.2 Mathematical Formulation |
241 |
|
|
7.3 Auxiliary Problem (Unit Step Pressure Decline) |
242 |
|
|
7.3.1 Single Fracture |
244 |
|
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7.3.2 Infinite Fracture Array () |
244 |
|
|
7.3.3 Finite Fracture Array Problem |
246 |
|
|
7.3.3.1 Production Rate |
247 |
|
|
7.3.3.2 Cumulative Production |
248 |
|
|
7.3.4 Uniform Leak-in Approximation |
248 |
|
|
7.4 Transient Pressure Decline: Constant Rate of Production from Fractured Well |
252 |
|
|
7.4.1 Single Fracture |
253 |
|
|
7.4.2 Infinite Fracture Array |
253 |
|
|
7.4.3 Finite Fracture Array |
254 |
|
|
7.4.3.1 Pressure Evolution |
254 |
|
|
7.4.3.2 Cumulative Produced Volume |
254 |
|
|
7.4.4 Uniform Leak-in Approximation |
254 |
|
|
7.5 Summary |
257 |
|
|
References |
258 |
|
|
8: Interfacial Engineering for Oil and Gas Applications: Role of Modeling and Simulation |
259 |
|
|
8.1 Introduction |
259 |
|
|
8.2 Enhanced Oil Recovery |
261 |
|
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8.2.1 Surfactants and Additives |
261 |
|
|
8.2.2 Supercritical CO2 |
263 |
|
|
8.2.3 Produced Water Demulsification and Treatment |
263 |
|
|
8.3 Flow Assurance |
266 |
|
|
8.3.1 Hydrate Formation Mechanisms |
266 |
|
|
8.3.2 Kinetic Inhibitor Design |
267 |
|
|
8.4 Carbon Capture and Separation |
268 |
|
|
8.4.1 Adsorbents |
268 |
|
|
8.4.2 Membranes |
269 |
|
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8.5 CO2 Conversion and Utilization |
271 |
|
|
8.6 Conclusion and Outlook |
272 |
|
|
References |
273 |
|
|
Chapter 9: Petroleum Geomechanics: A Computational Perspective |
286 |
|
|
9.1 Introduction |
286 |
|
|
9.2 Subsidence |
287 |
|
|
9.3 Borehole Stability |
300 |
|
|
9.3.1 Case 1: Impact of the FEM Schemes (SGS/GSGS and Galerkin FEM) |
309 |
|
|
9.3.2 Case 2: Impact of Thermal and Solute Convection in Lower Permeability Formations |
310 |
|
|
9.3.3 Case 3: Impact of Thermal and Solute Convection in Higher Permeability Formations |
312 |
|
|
9.3.4 Case 4: Impact of the Membrane Efficiency |
314 |
|
|
9.4 Hydraulic Fracturing |
316 |
|
|
9.4.1 Case 1: Fully Coupled XFEM Solution |
323 |
|
|
9.4.2 Case 2: Impact of Injection Rate |
325 |
|
|
9.4.3 Case 3: Impact of Injection Temperature |
326 |
|
|
9.4.4 Case 4: Impact of Aquifer Stiffness |
327 |
|
|
9.4.5 Case 5: Impact of Aquifer Permeability |
328 |
|
|
9.4.6 Case 6: Impact of the Stabilized FEM Scheme |
329 |
|
|
9.4.7 Case 7: Impact of the FEM Mesh Size |
330 |
|
|
9.5 Conclusions |
330 |
|
|
References |
331 |
|
|
Chapter 10: Insights on the REV of Source Shale from Nano- and Micromechanics |
335 |
|
|
10.1 Introduction |
336 |
|
|
10.2 Sample Preparation for Nano- and Micro-Scale Shale Characterization |
338 |
|
|
10.3 Test Methods |
340 |
|
|
10.3.1 Compositional Analysis |
340 |
|
|
10.3.2 Nanoindentation |
340 |
|
|
10.3.3 Micro-Cantilever Beams |
341 |
|
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10.4 Nano- and Micro-Measurements |
343 |
|
|
10.4.1 Compositional Analysis |
343 |
|
|
10.4.2 Nanoindentation |
345 |
|
|
10.4.3 Micro-Cantilever Beams loading |
346 |
|
|
10.5 Micro-Measurement Cantilever-Beam Overview |
357 |
|
|
10.5.1 Macro-Measurements of Kerogen-Rich Shale Following ASTM and ISRM Methods |
359 |
|
|
10.5.1.1 Brazilian Tensile Test |
359 |
|
|
10.5.2 Three-Point Chevron Notch Semicircular Bending Shale Sample (CNSCB) |
360 |
|
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10.5.2.1 Anisotropic Tensile Strength |
361 |
|
|
10.6 Summary and Future Direction (Macro-Scale) |
363 |
|
|
References |
365 |
|
|
11: Experimental and Numerical Investigation of Mechanical Interactions of Proppant and Hydraulic Fractures |
367 |
|
|
11.1 Introduction |
367 |
|
|
11.2 Experimental Investigation |
370 |
|
|
11.3 Theoretical Study and Numerical Modeling |
374 |
|
|
11.4 Discussion |
380 |
|
|
11.5 Concluding Remarks |
382 |
|
|
References |
383 |
|
|
Chapter 12: Integrated Experimental and Computational Characterization of Shale at Multiple Length Scales |
389 |
|
|
12.1 Introduction |
389 |
|
|
12.2 Experimental Studies |
391 |
|
|
12.2.1 Overview of Experimental Studies for the Mechanical Characterization of Shale |
391 |
|
|
12.2.1.1 Field Scale |
391 |
|
|
12.2.1.2 Macroscopic Scale |
392 |
|
|
12.2.1.3 Mesoscopic Scale |
395 |
|
|
12.2.1.4 Microscopic and Nanometer Scales |
396 |
|
|
12.2.2 Experimental Characterization of Marcellus Shale at the Macroscopic Scale |
398 |
|
|
12.2.2.1 Sample Preparation |
399 |
|
|
12.2.2.2 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity |
400 |
|
|
12.2.2.3 Brazilian Tensile Tests |
402 |
|
|
12.2.2.4 Uniaxial Compression Tests |
405 |
|
|
12.2.2.5 Three-Point-Bending Tests |
407 |
|
|
12.2.3 Discussion |
408 |
|
|
12.3 Computational Studies |
409 |
|
|
12.3.1 Overview of Modeling Techniques for the Mechanical Characterization of Shale |
409 |
|
|
12.3.1.1 Macroscopic Scale |
410 |
|
|
12.3.1.2 Mesoscopic Scale |
413 |
|
|
12.3.1.3 Microscopic and Nanometer Scales |
415 |
|
|
12.3.1.4 Multiscale Algorithm |
416 |
|
|
12.3.2 A Micromechanical Discrete Approach |
417 |
|
|
12.3.2.1 Geometrical Characterization of Shale Internal Structure |
418 |
|
|
12.3.2.2 Constitutive Equations |
419 |
|
|
Elastic Behavior |
419 |
|
|
Fracturing Behavior |
421 |
|
|
Frictional Behavior |
422 |
|
|
12.3.2.3 Preliminary Results |
422 |
|
|
12.3.3 Discussion |
424 |
|
|
References |
425 |
|
|
13: Recent Advances in Global Fracture Mechanics of Growth of Large Hydraulic Crack Systems in Gas or Oil Shale: A Review |
435 |
|
|
13.1 Introduction |
435 |
|
|
13.2 Brief Overview of Fracking Technology |
436 |
|
|
13.3 Estimation of Hydraulic Crack Spacing from Gas Flow History Observed at Wellhead |
438 |
|
|
13.3.1 Diffusion of Gas from Shale into Hydraulic Cracks |
438 |
|
|
13.3.2 Total Volume and Surface Area of Hydraulic Crack System |
440 |
|
|
13.3.3 Flow of Gas from the Hydraulic Crack System to the Wellhead |
440 |
|
|
13.3.4 Long-Term Gas Flow as the Main Indicator of Crack Spacing |
442 |
|
|
13.4 Evolution of a System of Parallel Hydraulic Cracks |
443 |
|
|
13.4.1 Hydrothermal Analogy |
443 |
|
|
13.4.2 Review of Stability of Parallel Crack Systems |
444 |
|
|
13.5 Evolution of Two Orthogonal Systems of Hydraulic Cracks |
446 |
|
|
13.5.1 Cracked Finite Elements for Crack Band Model |
447 |
|
|
13.5.2 Secondary Lateral Crack Initiation and the Necessity to Include Diffusion |
447 |
|
|
13.5.3 Water Flow Through Hydraulic Cracks and Pores |
449 |
|
|
13.5.4 Combined Diffusion Through Shale Pores and Flow Along the Cracks |
449 |
|
|
13.5.5 Crack Opening Corresponding to Smeared Damage Strain in Crack Band Model |
451 |
|
|
13.5.6 Pore Pressure Effect on Stresses in the Shale |
451 |
|
|
13.5.7 Numerical Prediction of Evolutions of Hydraulic Crack System |
452 |
|
|
13.6 Closing Comments |
454 |
|
|
References |
457 |
|
|
Chapter 14: Fundamentals of the Hydromechanical Behavior of Multiphase Granular Materials |
461 |
|
|
14.1 Introduction |
461 |
|
|
14.1.1 Fundamental Definition in Terms of Volumes and Weights |
462 |
|
|
14.1.2 Definition of Suction |
464 |
|
|
14.1.3 Soil Water Retention Curve (SWRC) |
465 |
|
|
14.1.3.1 Enhanced Models to Describe the WRC Based on Microstructural Features |
467 |
|
|
14.1.4 Stress Variable in Unsaturated Conditions |
472 |
|
|
14.1.5 Small Strain Stiffness |
474 |
|
|
14.1.6 Stiffness at Moderate (Larger) Strain: Compressibility |
476 |
|
|
14.1.6.1 Modelling the Compressibility Behavior |
477 |
|
|
14.1.7 Strength of Unsaturated Soils |
478 |
|
|
References |
483 |
|
|
Chapter 15: Beyond Hydrocarbon Extraction: Enhanced Geothermal Systems |
487 |
|
|
15.1 Introduction to Sedimentary Enhanced Geothermal Systems (SEGS) |
488 |
|
|
15.2 Description of a Modeled SEGS Reservoir |
489 |
|
|
15.2.1 Flow Equations |
491 |
|
|
15.2.2 Heat Transfer Equations |
492 |
|
|
15.3 Interpretation of Simulation Results |
493 |
|
|
15.3.1 Effect of Reservoir Permeability on Thermal Breakthrough Time and Reservoir Thermal Performance |
497 |
|
|
15.3.2 Effect of Boundaries on Reservoir Thermal Performance |
498 |
|
|
15.4 Issues of Long-Term Heat Extraction |
499 |
|
|
15.5 In Situ Stresses and Their Re-distribution in EGS |
501 |
|
|
15.6 Concluding Remarks |
504 |
|
|
References |
505 |
|
|
16: Some Economic Issues in the Exploration for Oil and Gas |
507 |
|
|
16.1 Introduction |
507 |
|
|
16.2 Modeling Exploration |
508 |
|
|
16.3 Some Empirical Evidence |
510 |
|
|
16.3.1 Trends in the Probability of a Dry Hole |
510 |
|
|
16.3.2 Trends in Price and Drilling |
511 |
|
|
16.4 Developments in the Gulf of Mexico |
512 |
|
|
16.5 Discussion |
516 |
|
|
References |
517 |
|
|
ERRATUM TO |
519 |
|
|
Index |
520 |
|