Preface	5
	Contents	7
	Chapter 1: Understanding Asphaltene Aggregation and Precipitation Through Theoretical and Computational Studies	9
	1.1 Introduction	10
	1.2 Experiment Studies	11
	1.3 Theoretical Studies	15
	1.3.1 Theoretical Modeling of Asphaltene Aggregation	15
	1.3.2 Theoretical Modeling of Asphaltene Precipitation	16
	1.3.2.1 Models Based on Colloidal Theory	17
	1.3.2.2 Models Based on Solubility Theory	18
	Models Based on Regular Solution Theory	19
	Models Based on Equation of State Methods	24
	1.4 Computational Studies	27
	1.4.1 Studies Using QM Approach	33
	1.4.2 Studies Using MM and MD Approaches	35
	1.4.2.1 Studies Using MM Approach	35
	1.4.2.2 Studies Using MD Approach	36
	1.4.3 Studies Using Mesoscopic Simulation Techniques	42
	1.5 Summary and Future Perspectives	43
	References	43
	Chapter 2: Advancement in Numerical Simulations of Gas Hydrate Dissociation in Porous Media	56
	2.1 Introduction	57
	2.2 Background	58
	2.2.1 Introduction to Gas Hydrates	58
	2.2.2 Existing Research on Gas Hydrates	59
	2.2.3 Numerical Simulations of Gas Hydrates	61
	2.3 Basic Mechanisms in Hydrate Disassociation: Governing Equation System	64
	2.3.1 Basic Mechanisms Involved in Gas Hydrate Dissociation	64
	2.3.2 A Unified Mathematical Framework for Different Mechanisms	66
	2.3.3 Classification of Existing Methods	69
	2.3.4 Comparison and Integration	71
	2.3.4.1 Classifications Based on Criteria 1, 2, and 3	71
	2.3.4.2 Classifications Based on Criteria 4	76
	2.4 Materials Properties for Gas Hydrate Modeling: Auxiliary Relationships	78
	2.4.1 Material Properties Related to Heat Transfer	79
	2.4.1.1 Heat Capacity	80
	2.4.1.2 Thermal Conductivity	81
	2.4.1.3 Thermal Diffusivity	83
	2.4.2 Material Properties Related to Mass Transfer	83
	2.4.2.1 Absolute Permeability and Permeability Considering Hydrate Saturation	84
	2.4.2.2 Relative Permeability	85
	2.4.2.3 Capillary Pressure-Saturation Relationship	86
	2.4.2.4 Diffusion Coefficients	87
	2.4.2.5 Hydraulic Diffusivity	88
	2.4.2.6 Mass Transfer Between Phases	88
	2.4.3 Material Properties Related to Chemical Reactions	89
	2.4.3.1 Thermodynamic State	89
	2.4.3.2 Equilibrium: Phase Diagram	90
	2.4.3.3 Kinetic: Dissociation Kinetics	92
	2.4.4 Material Parameters for Momentum Balance	94
	2.4.4.1 Solid: Geomechanical Properties, Solid-Fluid Coupling, Constitutive Relations	94
	2.4.4.2 Liquid: Darcy´s Law, Viscosity	96
	2.4.4.3 Solid-Liquid Interaction: Stress Formulation	97
	2.5 Discussions	98
	2.5.1 Validation of the Performance of Existing Models	99
	2.5.1.1 Validations by Experiments	99
	2.5.1.2 Mutual Validation Between Models	100
	2.5.1.3 Applications	100
	2.5.2 Suggestion on Practice Production by Model Simulations	101
	2.5.2.1 Recovery Schemes	101
	2.5.2.2 Critical Factors in Recovery	102
	2.5.2.3 Governing Mechanisms for Hydrate Dissociation	104
	2.5.3 Research Trends and Future Needs	105
	2.5.3.1 Physical Fields	105
	2.5.3.2 Phases and Components	105
	2.5.3.3 Equilibrium Versus Kinetic Models	105
	2.5.3.4 Environmental Effects	106
	2.6 Conclusion	107
	References	108
	Chapter 3: Discrete Element Modeling of the Role of In Situ Stress on the Interactions Between Hydraulic and Natural Fractures	119
	3.1 Introduction	119
	3.2 Discrete Element Method	120
	3.3 Representing Discrete Fracture	121
	3.4 Hydromechanical Coupling	122
	3.5 PKN Model Simulation	123
	3.6 Hydraulic (HF) and Natural (NF) Fracture Interaction	128
	3.7 Parametric Study: Reference Model	129
	3.7.1 Anisotropic Stress Field	131
	3.7.2 Effect of Different Orientation of the NF	134
	3.7.3 Effect of Different Orientation of a Dilatant NF Combined with Higher Anisotropic Stress Field	138
	3.8 Conclusions	139
	References	140
	Chapter 4: Rock Physics Modeling in Conventional Reservoirs	143
	4.1 Review of Geophysical Concepts	143
	4.2 Empirical Relations	145
	4.3 Solid Phase	148
	4.4 Fluid Phase	151
	4.5 Dry Rock Properties	153
	4.5.1 Granular Media Models	155
	4.5.2 Inclusion Models	156
	4.6 Saturated Rock Properties	159
	4.7 Example	161
	4.8 Other Rock Physics Models	162
	4.9 Rock Physics Inversion	164
	References	168
	Chapter 5: Geomechanics and Elastic Anisotropy of Shale Formations	170
	5.1 Introduction	170
	5.2 Theory of Anisotropy	172
	5.2.1 Elastic Anisotropy	172
	5.2.2 Classification of Anisotropic Media	172
	5.2.3 VTI Medium	173
	5.2.4 Shale Anisotropy	174
	5.2.5 Case Study	175
	5.3 Fundamentals of Geomechanical Modeling for Wellbore Instability	179
	5.3.1 Chemically Induced Instability	179
	5.3.2 Mechanically Induced Instability	179
	5.3.3 Factors Influencing Wellbore Stability	179
	5.3.4 In Situ Stress Field	180
	5.3.5 Wellbore Pressure	181
	5.3.6 Fractures and Damages in the Formation	181
	5.3.7 Thermal Effect	182
	5.3.8 Fluid Flow into the Wellbore	182
	5.3.9 Chemical Effects (in Shales)	182
	5.3.10 Numerical Modeling of Wellbore Stability	183
	5.3.10.1 Elastic Models	183
	5.3.10.2 Elastoplastic and Poro-elastoplastic Models	184
	5.3.10.3 Stress Distribution Around the Wellbore	184
	5.3.10.4 Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion	187
	The Minimum Wellbore Pressure	187
	The Maximum Wellbore Pressure	188
	Elastoplastic Stress Analysis	188
	5.3.10.5 Wellbore Stability in Laminated (VTI) Formations	191
	Anisotropic Strength Model	191
	5.4 Anisotropic Geomechanical Modeling Case Study-Bakken Formation	193
	5.4.1 Anisotropy in Geomechanical Modeling	193
	5.4.1.1 Vertical Stress	194
	5.4.1.2 Pore Pressure	195
	5.4.1.3 Horizontal Stress	195
	5.4.1.4 Anisotropic Elastic Parameters	196
	5.4.1.5 Stress Profile	197
	5.4.1.6 Maximum Horizontal Principal Stress (Second Approach)	199
	5.4.1.7 Maximum Principal Horizontal Stress Orientation	200
	5.4.2 3D Numerical Modeling	201
	5.4.2.1 Vertical Well (0 Deviation Angle)	201
	5.4.2.2 Inclined Well (45 Attack Angle) (Figs.5.26, 5.27, 5.28, and 5.29)	205
	5.5 Summary and Recommendations	209
	References	210
	Chapter 6: Nano-Scale Characterization of Organic-Rich Shale via Indentation Methods	213
	6.1 Introduction	214
	6.2 Multi-scale Thought Model for Shale	214
	6.3 Experimental Procedure	216
	6.3.1 Materials	216
	6.3.2 Grinding and Polishing	216
	6.3.3 Roughness Characterization	220
	6.4 Mechanical Properties	221
	6.4.1 Elastic Properties	221
	6.4.2 Indentation Equipment	222
	6.4.3 Indentation Experiment	223
	6.4.4 Statistical Nano-Indentation	225
	6.4.5 Elastic Mechanical Homogenization	232
	6.5 Conclusion and Future Perspectives	234
	References	235
	7: On the Production Analysis of a Multi-Fractured Horizontal Well	238
	7.1 Introduction	239
	7.2 Mathematical Formulation	241
	7.3 Auxiliary Problem (Unit Step Pressure Decline)	242
	7.3.1 Single Fracture	244
	7.3.2 Infinite Fracture Array ()	244
	7.3.3 Finite Fracture Array Problem	246
	7.3.3.1 Production Rate	247
	7.3.3.2 Cumulative Production	248
	7.3.4 Uniform Leak-in Approximation	248
	7.4 Transient Pressure Decline: Constant Rate of Production from Fractured Well	252
	7.4.1 Single Fracture	253
	7.4.2 Infinite Fracture Array	253
	7.4.3 Finite Fracture Array	254
	7.4.3.1 Pressure Evolution	254
	7.4.3.2 Cumulative Produced Volume	254
	7.4.4 Uniform Leak-in Approximation	254
	7.5 Summary	257
	References	258
	8: Interfacial Engineering for Oil and Gas Applications: Role of Modeling and Simulation	259
	8.1 Introduction	259
	8.2 Enhanced Oil Recovery	261
	8.2.1 Surfactants and Additives	261
	8.2.2 Supercritical CO2	263
	8.2.3 Produced Water Demulsification and Treatment	263
	8.3 Flow Assurance	266
	8.3.1 Hydrate Formation Mechanisms	266
	8.3.2 Kinetic Inhibitor Design	267
	8.4 Carbon Capture and Separation	268
	8.4.1 Adsorbents	268
	8.4.2 Membranes	269
	8.5 CO2 Conversion and Utilization	271
	8.6 Conclusion and Outlook	272
	References	273
	Chapter 9: Petroleum Geomechanics: A Computational Perspective	286
	9.1 Introduction	286
	9.2 Subsidence	287
	9.3 Borehole Stability	300
	9.3.1 Case 1: Impact of the FEM Schemes (SGS/GSGS and Galerkin FEM)	309
	9.3.2 Case 2: Impact of Thermal and Solute Convection in Lower Permeability Formations	310
	9.3.3 Case 3: Impact of Thermal and Solute Convection in Higher Permeability Formations	312
	9.3.4 Case 4: Impact of the Membrane Efficiency	314
	9.4 Hydraulic Fracturing	316
	9.4.1 Case 1: Fully Coupled XFEM Solution	323
	9.4.2 Case 2: Impact of Injection Rate	325
	9.4.3 Case 3: Impact of Injection Temperature	326
	9.4.4 Case 4: Impact of Aquifer Stiffness	327
	9.4.5 Case 5: Impact of Aquifer Permeability	328
	9.4.6 Case 6: Impact of the Stabilized FEM Scheme	329
	9.4.7 Case 7: Impact of the FEM Mesh Size	330
	9.5 Conclusions	330
	References	331
	Chapter 10: Insights on the REV of Source Shale from Nano- and Micromechanics	335
	10.1 Introduction	336
	10.2 Sample Preparation for Nano- and Micro-Scale Shale Characterization	338
	10.3 Test Methods	340
	10.3.1 Compositional Analysis	340
	10.3.2 Nanoindentation	340
	10.3.3 Micro-Cantilever Beams	341
	10.4 Nano- and Micro-Measurements	343
	10.4.1 Compositional Analysis	343
	10.4.2 Nanoindentation	345
	10.4.3 Micro-Cantilever Beams loading	346
	10.5 Micro-Measurement Cantilever-Beam Overview	357
	10.5.1 Macro-Measurements of Kerogen-Rich Shale Following ASTM and ISRM Methods	359
	10.5.1.1 Brazilian Tensile Test	359
	10.5.2 Three-Point Chevron Notch Semicircular Bending Shale Sample (CNSCB)	360
	10.5.2.1 Anisotropic Tensile Strength	361
	10.6 Summary and Future Direction (Macro-Scale)	363
	References	365
	11: Experimental and Numerical Investigation of Mechanical Interactions of Proppant and Hydraulic Fractures	367
	11.1 Introduction	367
	11.2 Experimental Investigation	370
	11.3 Theoretical Study and Numerical Modeling	374
	11.4 Discussion	380
	11.5 Concluding Remarks	382
	References	383
	Chapter 12: Integrated Experimental and Computational Characterization of Shale at Multiple Length Scales	389
	12.1 Introduction	389
	12.2 Experimental Studies	391
	12.2.1 Overview of Experimental Studies for the Mechanical Characterization of Shale	391
	12.2.1.1 Field Scale	391
	12.2.1.2 Macroscopic Scale	392
	12.2.1.3 Mesoscopic Scale	395
	12.2.1.4 Microscopic and Nanometer Scales	396
	12.2.2 Experimental Characterization of Marcellus Shale at the Macroscopic Scale	398
	12.2.2.1 Sample Preparation	399
	12.2.2.2 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity	400
	12.2.2.3 Brazilian Tensile Tests	402
	12.2.2.4 Uniaxial Compression Tests	405
	12.2.2.5 Three-Point-Bending Tests	407
	12.2.3 Discussion	408
	12.3 Computational Studies	409
	12.3.1 Overview of Modeling Techniques for the Mechanical Characterization of Shale	409
	12.3.1.1 Macroscopic Scale	410
	12.3.1.2 Mesoscopic Scale	413
	12.3.1.3 Microscopic and Nanometer Scales	415
	12.3.1.4 Multiscale Algorithm	416
	12.3.2 A Micromechanical Discrete Approach	417
	12.3.2.1 Geometrical Characterization of Shale Internal Structure	418
	12.3.2.2 Constitutive Equations	419
	Elastic Behavior	419
	Fracturing Behavior	421
	Frictional Behavior	422
	12.3.2.3 Preliminary Results	422
	12.3.3 Discussion	424
	References	425
	13: Recent Advances in Global Fracture Mechanics of Growth of Large Hydraulic Crack Systems in Gas or Oil Shale: A Review	435
	13.1 Introduction	435
	13.2 Brief Overview of Fracking Technology	436
	13.3 Estimation of Hydraulic Crack Spacing from Gas Flow History Observed at Wellhead	438
	13.3.1 Diffusion of Gas from Shale into Hydraulic Cracks	438
	13.3.2 Total Volume and Surface Area of Hydraulic Crack System	440
	13.3.3 Flow of Gas from the Hydraulic Crack System to the Wellhead	440
	13.3.4 Long-Term Gas Flow as the Main Indicator of Crack Spacing	442
	13.4 Evolution of a System of Parallel Hydraulic Cracks	443
	13.4.1 Hydrothermal Analogy	443
	13.4.2 Review of Stability of Parallel Crack Systems	444
	13.5 Evolution of Two Orthogonal Systems of Hydraulic Cracks	446
	13.5.1 Cracked Finite Elements for Crack Band Model	447
	13.5.2 Secondary Lateral Crack Initiation and the Necessity to Include Diffusion	447
	13.5.3 Water Flow Through Hydraulic Cracks and Pores	449
	13.5.4 Combined Diffusion Through Shale Pores and Flow Along the Cracks	449
	13.5.5 Crack Opening Corresponding to Smeared Damage Strain in Crack Band Model	451
	13.5.6 Pore Pressure Effect on Stresses in the Shale	451
	13.5.7 Numerical Prediction of Evolutions of Hydraulic Crack System	452
	13.6 Closing Comments	454
	References	457
	Chapter 14: Fundamentals of the Hydromechanical Behavior of Multiphase Granular Materials	461
	14.1 Introduction	461
	14.1.1 Fundamental Definition in Terms of Volumes and Weights	462
	14.1.2 Definition of Suction	464
	14.1.3 Soil Water Retention Curve (SWRC)	465
	14.1.3.1 Enhanced Models to Describe the WRC Based on Microstructural Features	467
	14.1.4 Stress Variable in Unsaturated Conditions	472
	14.1.5 Small Strain Stiffness	474
	14.1.6 Stiffness at Moderate (Larger) Strain: Compressibility	476
	14.1.6.1 Modelling the Compressibility Behavior	477
	14.1.7 Strength of Unsaturated Soils	478
	References	483
	Chapter 15: Beyond Hydrocarbon Extraction: Enhanced Geothermal Systems	487
	15.1 Introduction to Sedimentary Enhanced Geothermal Systems (SEGS)	488
	15.2 Description of a Modeled SEGS Reservoir	489
	15.2.1 Flow Equations	491
	15.2.2 Heat Transfer Equations	492
	15.3 Interpretation of Simulation Results	493
	15.3.1 Effect of Reservoir Permeability on Thermal Breakthrough Time and Reservoir Thermal Performance	497
	15.3.2 Effect of Boundaries on Reservoir Thermal Performance	498
	15.4 Issues of Long-Term Heat Extraction	499
	15.5 In Situ Stresses and Their Re-distribution in EGS	501
	15.6 Concluding Remarks	504
	References	505
	16: Some Economic Issues in the Exploration for Oil and Gas	507
	16.1 Introduction	507
	16.2 Modeling Exploration	508
	16.3 Some Empirical Evidence	510
	16.3.1 Trends in the Probability of a Dry Hole	510
	16.3.2 Trends in Price and Drilling	511
	16.4 Developments in the Gulf of Mexico	512
	16.5 Discussion	516
	References	517
	ERRATUM TO	519
	Index	520