Preface	6
	Contents	7
	About the Authors	12
	Acronyms	14
	1 Innovations in Remote Sensing of Forests	19
	Abstract	19
	1.1 Introduction	19
	1.2 Chapters Including in the Book	21
	1.3 Conclusions	30
	References	30
	Airborne LiDAR and Optical Measurements of Forest	34
	2 Overview of LiDAR Technologies and Equipment for Land Cover Scanning	35
	Abstract	35
	2.1 Introduction	35
	2.2 Development of LiDAR Technology	37
	2.3 Overview of Airborne Laser Scanning	40
	2.3.1 Physical Principles of Airborne Laser Scanning	40
	2.3.2 Errors of LiDAR Systems	44
	2.3.3 Conventional LiDAR Calibration Methods	46
	2.3.4 Alternative LiDAR Calibration Methods	48
	2.3.5 Equipment for Airborne Laser Scanning	49
	2.4 Overview of UAV Laser Scanning	58
	2.4.1 Particular Qualities of UAV Laser Scanning	58
	2.4.2 Equipment for UAV Laser Scanning	59
	2.5 Overview of Terrestrial Laser Scanning	63
	2.5.1 Particular Qualities of Terrestrial Laser Scanning	63
	2.5.2 Equipment for Terrestrial Laser Scanning	64
	2.5.3 Particular Qualities of Mobile Laser Scanning	71
	2.5.4 Equipment for Mobile Laser Scanning	71
	2.6 Comparison of Remote Sensing Techniques for Forest Inventory	77
	2.7 Conclusions	78
	References	79
	3 Software Tools for Terrain and Forest Modelling	85
	Abstract	85
	3.1 Introduction	85
	3.2 Survey of Software Tools for Terrain Modelling	86
	3.2.1 Software Tool “Terrasolid”	86
	3.2.2 Cloud Platform “ArcGIS”	92
	3.2.3 Software Tool “Bionatics”	96
	3.2.4 Software Tool “Terragen”	99
	3.2.5 Software Tool “3DNature”	100
	3.2.6 Software Tool “GRASS”	101
	3.2.7 Software Tool “Object Raku Technology”	105
	3.3 Survey of Software Tools for Vegetation Modelling	106
	3.3.1 Software Tool “Xfog”	106
	3.3.2 Software Tool “SpeedTree”	108
	3.3.3 Software Tool “Onyx Computing”	110
	3.3.4 Software Tool “Marlin Studios”	115
	3.3.5 Software Tool “E-on Software”	115
	3.3.6 Additional Software Tools	117
	3.4 Conclusions	124
	References	124
	4 Data Fusion for Evaluation of Woodland Parameters	126
	Abstract	126
	4.1 Introduction	126
	4.2 Related Work	128
	4.3 Generalized Flowchart for Data Fusion of Airborne Laser Scanning, Imaging Spectroscopy, and Imaging Photography	135
	4.4 Representation of Airborne LiDAR and Digital Photography Data	138
	4.5 Method for Crown and Trunk Measurements	141
	4.5.1 Shearlet Transform	143
	4.5.2 Generic, Higher Order, and Probabilistic Active Contour Models	144
	4.5.3 Crown Measurements	146
	4.6 Experimental Results	147
	4.7 Conclusions	148
	References	148
	Individual Tree Modelling	153
	5 Tree Modelling in Virtual Reality Environment	154
	Abstract	154
	5.1 Introduction	154
	5.2 Related Work	155
	5.3 Fundamentals of L-Systems	164
	5.3.1 Overview of L-Systems	165
	5.3.2 Overview of Parametric L-Systems	167
	5.3.3 Skeleton Tree-like Structures Based on L-Systems	171
	5.4 Procedural Modelling of Broad-Leaved Trees and Shrubs	173
	5.4.1 Procedural Broad-Leaved Trees Modelling Based on L-Systems	175
	5.4.2 Realistic Image-Based Procedural Modelling of Broad-Leaved Trees	177
	5.5 Procedural Modelling of Coniferous Trees	180
	5.6 Modelling Results	182
	5.7 Conclusions	189
	References	189
	6 Realistic Tree Modelling	193
	Abstract	193
	6.1 Introduction	193
	6.2 Related Work	194
	6.3 Voxel Modelling of Vegetation	196
	6.3.1 Voxelization	196
	6.3.2 2D Analysis in Horizontal Cuts	197
	6.3.3 3D Reconstruction	198
	6.4 Improvement of Tree Models by Realistic Data	198
	6.4.1 Space Colonization Algorithm	199
	6.4.2 Graph-Based Modelling	203
	6.4.3 Self-organizing Tree Modelling	204
	6.4.4 Inverse Procedural Modelling	206
	6.5 Experimental Results	209
	6.6 Conclusions	212
	References	213
	Landscape Scene Modelling	215
	7 Digital Modelling of Terrain Surface	216
	Abstract	216
	7.1 Introduction	216
	7.2 Related Work	218
	7.3 Densification of LiDAR Point Cloud	221
	7.3.1 Densification Approaches	221
	7.3.2 Measurement Errors	222
	7.4 Filtering of LiDAR Points	224
	7.4.1 Surface-Based Filtering	224
	7.4.2 Slope-Based Filtering	228
	7.4.3 Morphology-Based Filtering	230
	7.4.4 Segmentation-Based Filtering	232
	7.4.5 Hybrid Methods	236
	7.4.6 Comparison of Filtering Methods	238
	7.5 Generation of Digital Terrain Model	240
	7.5.1 Spatial Relationship Methods	240
	7.5.2 Statistical Methods	245
	7.5.3 Curve-Fitting Methods	250
	7.5.4 Surfaces’ Interpolation in ArcGIS Spatial Analyst	251
	7.5.5 Accuracy Estimators	252
	7.6 Experimental Results	254
	7.7 Conclusions	257
	References	257
	8 Texturing of Landscape Scenes	262
	Abstract	262
	8.1 Introduction	262
	8.2 Related Work	264
	8.2.1 Visualization Techniques for Digital Earth Surface Model	264
	8.2.2 Visualization Techniques for Tree and Plant Models	267
	8.3 Fundamentals of Texture Mapping	268
	8.4 Multi-resolution Texturing for Digital Earth Surface Model	272
	8.4.1 Basic Techniques	273
	8.4.2 Extended Techniques	274
	8.5 Multi-resolution Texturing for Vegetation Models	277
	8.6 Experimental Results	283
	8.7 Conclusions	287
	References	288
	9 Large Scene Rendering	291
	Abstract	291
	9.1 Introduction	291
	9.2 Related Work	292
	9.2.1 Overview of Terrain Rendering Techniques	292
	9.2.2 Overview of Object Rendering Techniques	294
	9.2.3 Overview of Realistic Lighting	297
	9.3 Large Landscape Scene Rendering	300
	9.4 Large Terrain Rendering	301
	9.5 Vegetation Rendering	309
	9.6 Realistic Lighting	313
	9.7 Shaders	316
	9.8 Conclusions	327
	References	327
	10 Scene Rendering Under Meteorological Impacts	331
	Abstract	331
	10.1 Introduction	331
	10.2 Related Work	332
	10.2.1 Overview of Wind Rendering	332
	10.2.2 Overview of Fog Rendering	334
	10.2.3 Overview of Rain Rendering	335
	10.2.4 Overview of Snow Rendering	336
	10.3 Wind Rendering	338
	10.4 Fog Simulation	344
	10.5 Rain Simulation	350
	10.6 Snow Covering Simulation	356
	10.7 Natural Objects’ Rendering	360
	10.7.1 Rendering of the Water Surfaces	361
	10.7.2 Rendering of Clouds	364
	10.8 Experimental Results	366
	10.9 Conclusions	369
	References	370
	Forest Ecosystem Modelling	375
	11 Lighting and Shadows Rendering in Natural Scenes	376
	Abstract	376
	11.1 Introduction	376
	11.2 Related Work	377
	11.3 Background of Lighting	380
	11.3.1 Lighting	380
	11.3.2 Material Properties	390
	11.3.3 Volume Rendering	393
	11.4 Simulation of Lighting in Modelling Scene	394
	11.4.1 Trees Lighting	395
	11.4.2 Foliage Lighting	397
	11.5 Simulation of Lighting Changes in Modelling Scene	399
	11.6 Implementation	401
	11.7 Conclusions	402
	References	402
	12 Modelling of Forest Ecosystems	406
	Abstract	406
	12.1 Introduction	406
	12.2 Related Work	409
	12.3 Forest Scene Modelling	411
	12.4 Forest Ecosystems	413
	12.5 Modelling of Living Conditions	414
	12.5.1 Soil’s Moisture and Minerals	415
	12.5.2 Wind	416
	12.5.3 Temperature	417
	12.5.4 Solar Radiation	417
	12.5.5 Forest Fire Risk Evaluation	419
	12.6 Conclusions	421
	References	421