Preface	5
	Notes Regarding the Translation	7
	Contents	8
	Abbreviations	12
	Symbols	13
	Loads, Service Loads, Load-Time Functions	13
	Counting Methods, Load Spectra, Matrices	14
	Analytical Fatigue-Life Estimate	15
	Experimental Test Results-Static	15
	Experimental Test Results-Constant Amplitude	15
	Experimental Test Results-Variable Amplitude	16
	Statistics, Safety, Reliability	16
	Chapter 1: Introduction	18
	Concluding Remarks	22
	References	26
	Chapter 2: Characteristic Service Stresses	29
	2.1 Stress-Time Functions	29
	2.2 Causes of Stress	35
	2.3 Deterministic and Stochastic Stress-Time Functions	38
	2.4 Special Events and Misuse	44
	References	46
	Chapter 3: Description of the Counting Methods	47
	3.1 Basic Principles	47
	3.1.1 Classes	47
	3.1.2 Range of Restoration and Class Width	48
	3.2 Standards	50
	3.3 One-Parameter Counting Methods	50
	3.3.1 Peak Counting	50
	Description of the Method	50
	Description of the Counting Algorithm	50
	Comment	51
	3.3.2 Level-Crossing Counting	52
	Description of the Method	52
	Description of the Counting Algorithm	52
	Comment	52
	3.3.3 Range Counting	54
	Description of the Method	54
	Description of the Counting Algorithm	54
	Comment	55
	3.3.4 Range-Pair Counting	55
	Description of the Method	55
	Description of the Counting Algorithm	55
	Comment	56
	Note	56
	Development	57
	3.4 Two-Parameter Counting Methods	57
	3.4.1 Range-Mean Counting	57
	Description of the Method	57
	Description of the Counting Algorithm	57
	Comment	58
	Development	58
	3.4.2 Transition Counting	58
	Description of the Method	58
	Description of the Counting Algorithm	58
	Comment	59
	Development	60
	3.4.3 Range-Pair-Mean Counting	60
	Description of the Method	60
	Description of the Counting Algorithm	60
	Comment	61
	Development	61
	3.4.4 Rainflow Counting	62
	Description of the Method	62
	Description of the Counting Algorithm	62
	Limitation	65
	Comment	65
	Development	66
	References	67
	Chapter 4: Load Spectra and Matrices	70
	4.1 Description of Load Spectra	71
	4.2 Extrapolation	77
	4.2.1 Analytical Extrapolation with the Shape Parameter	79
	4.2.2 Statistical Extrapolation for Stationary Processes	81
	4.3 Derivation of Spectra from Matrices	84
	4.3.1 Transition Matrix	84
	Determination of the Irregularity Factor I	85
	4.3.2 Rainflow Matrix	89
	4.4 Standardised Load Sequences and Spectra	94
	References	97
	Chapter 5: Comparison of the Counting Methods for Exemplary Load Time Functions	99
	5.1 Load-Time Functions Selected for the Investigation	99
	5.2 Random Load with an Irregularity Factor I = 0.99	99
	5.3 Random Load with an Irregularity Factor I = 0.7	100
	5.4 Step Function with Superimposed Damped Load-Time Function	100
	5.5 Superimposed Sinusoidal-Sinusoidal Load-Time Function	105
	References	105
	Chapter 6: Multiaxial Loads and Stresses	106
	6.1 Definition of Terms	106
	6.2 Measuring and Recording Technology	107
	6.2.1 Calibrated Strain-Gauge Measuring Points	107
	6.2.2 x-y Strain Gauge or Multiple Strain Gauge	107
	6.3 Counting of Multiaxial Load-Time Functions	108
	6.4 Counting of Multiaxial Local Stress States	109
	References	110
	Chapter 7: Time-at-Level and Level-Distribution Counting	112
	7.1 One-Parameter Methods	112
	7.1.1 Time-at-Level Counting	112
	Description of the Method	112
	Description of the Counting Algorithm	113
	Comment	113
	Application	113
	7.1.2 Relative Level-Distribution Counting	114
	Description of the Method	114
	Description of the Counting Algorithm	116
	Comment	116
	7.2 Two-Parameter Methods	116
	7.2.1 Two-Parameter Time-at-Level Counting	116
	Description of the Method	116
	Description of the Counting Algorithm	117
	Comment	117
	7.2.2 Relative Two-Parameter Level-Distribution Counting	118
	Description of the Method	118
	Application	119
	References	119
	Chapter 8: Application of the Counting Methods	120
	8.1 Criteria for the Selection of a Counting Method	120
	8.2 Recommendations	122
	8.2.1 Graphical Representation	122
	8.2.2 Practical Experience	122
	References	123
	Chapter 9: Analytical Fatigue-Life Estimate	125
	9.1 Palmgren-Miner Rule	127
	9.1.1 Consideration of the Mean Stress and Stress Ratio	129
	9.2 Modifications of the Palmgren-Miner Rule	130
	9.3 Comparison Between Calculation and Experiment	132
	9.3.1 Results	137
	9.4 Relative Palmgren-Miner Rule	139
	References	140
	Chapter 10: Design and Dimensioning Load Spectra	143
	10.1 Determination of Representative Load Spectra	144
	10.1.1 Definition of the Relevant Measuring Frequency	144
	10.1.2 Recommendations for the Generation of Measuring Spectra	145
	10.1.3 Determination of the Necessary Duration of Measurement	147
	10.1.4 Recommendations for the Evaluation of Comprehensive Measurements Under Operational Conditions	149
	10.2 Example for the Generation of Design and Dimensioning Spectra	150
	10.3 Different Procedures for Load Assumptions	151
	References	152
	Chapter 11: Safety Aspects	154
	11.1 Designing and Dimensioning of Structural Components	154
	11.2 Safety Concept	159
	11.3 Reliability Concept	160
	11.4 Scatter of the Strength	167
	11.5 Scatter of the Stress	171
	11.6 Safety and Engineering	176
	11.6.1 Calculation or Test, or Both	176
	11.6.2 Cases of Damage Analysis	177
	11.6.3 Comparison of the Concepts	180
	11.6.4 Differences in the Scope of Application	186
	11.6.5 Safety-Relevant Measures	187
	References	192
	Chapter 12: Load Assumptions in Various Special Fields	196
	12.1 Load Assumption in Technical Rules and Standards	196
	12.2 Examples in Various Fields	197
	12.2.1 Example: Cranes	197
	12.2.2 Example: Rail Vehicles	198
	General	198
	Determination of the Vehicle Weight	199
	Determination of the Loads	200
	Examples of Load Assumptions	200
	Conclusions	201
	12.2.3 Example: Bicycles	202
	12.2.4 Example: Automobile	203
	Operational Loads	204
	Exceptional or Special Events	212
	Conclusions	213
	References	214
	Chapter 13: Supplementary References to Publications on Load Assumptions in Various Specialised Fields	216
	13.1 General Machine Construction	216
	13.2 Plant Engineering	217
	13.3 Wind Turbines	218
	13.4 Motor Vehicles	220
	13.5 Railway Vehicles	225
	13.6 Aircraft Construction and Space Travel	226
	13.7 Naval and Offshore Construction	227
	13.8 Construction Machines and Agricultural Machines	227
	13.9 Sporting Equipment	228
	13.10 Reliability	228
	13.11 Books with Special Emphasis on Load Assumptions	229
	13.12 Symposia and Conferences	230
	References	230
	Index	232