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Exploring Occupant Behavior in Buildings - Methods and Challenges
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Exploring Occupant Behavior in Buildings - Methods and Challenges
von: Andreas Wagner, William O'Brien, Bing Dong
Springer-Verlag, 2017
ISBN: 9783319614649
333 Seiten, Download: 6894 KB
 
Format:  PDF
geeignet für: Apple iPad, Android Tablet PC's Online-Lesen PC, MAC, Laptop

Typ: B (paralleler Zugriff)

 

 
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Inhaltsverzeichnis

  Foreword 5  
  Acknowledgements 7  
  Contents 8  
  Glossary 10  
  1 Introduction 28  
     Abstract 28  
  2 Occupancy and Occupants’ Actions 33  
     Abstract 33  
     2.1 Introduction 34  
     2.2 Categorization of Occupants’ Actions 36  
     2.3 Potential Triggers and Contextual Factors Influencing Occupant Behavior in a Building 39  
     2.4 Literature Review of Relationship Between Action Types and Influencing Factors 41  
     2.5 Conclusion 57  
     References 58  
  3 Designing Research 65  
     Abstract 65  
     3.1 Introduction 65  
     3.2 Why Do the Research (Research Aims and Questions) 67  
     3.3 Identifying the Concepts to Measure and How They Link Together (Theory) 69  
        3.3.1 Concepts 71  
        3.3.2 One to One Relationships (Links) 71  
        3.3.3 One to Many Relationships (Hierarchies) 72  
     3.4 Units of Analysis, Populations, and Scope 73  
        3.4.1 Units of Analysis 73  
        3.4.2 Population of Interest and Scope 73  
        3.4.3 Descriptive or Inferential Statistics 74  
        3.4.4 Required Precision 76  
     3.5 Sampling and Sample Size 77  
        3.5.1 Sample Frames 77  
        3.5.2 Sampling Strategies 77  
        3.5.3 Spatial Sampling 78  
        3.5.4 Temporal Sampling 80  
        3.5.5 Sample Size Calculations 81  
        3.5.6 External Validity 82  
        3.5.7 An Illustrative Example of Sample Size Calculations 84  
        3.5.8 Internal Validity 85  
        3.5.9 Dropouts and Response Rates 88  
     3.6 How to Measure Concepts (Methods) 89  
        3.6.1 Concepts and Constructs 89  
        3.6.2 Operationalizing Constructs into Measurands 90  
        3.6.3 Latent Variables 91  
        3.6.4 Instruments 92  
        3.6.5 Quantifying Uncertainty 92  
     3.7 How to Measure Relationships (Research Design) 93  
        3.7.1 Descriptive (Correlational) Designs 95  
        3.7.2 Case Studies 95  
        3.7.3 Cross-Sectional Design 96  
        3.7.4 Longitudinal Surveys 96  
        3.7.5 Causative (Experimental) Designs 97  
     3.8 Pre-analysis Plans 99  
     3.9 Conclusion 100  
     References 101  
  4 Sensing and Data Acquisition 103  
     Abstract 103  
     4.1 Introduction 104  
     4.2 Sensing System Performance Metrics 105  
     4.3 Occupant Behavior and Presence Sensing 106  
        4.3.1 State-of-the-Art of Occupant Sensing Technologies 106  
        4.3.2 Human-in-the-Loop 118  
        4.3.3 Consumption Sensing 119  
     4.4 Occupant Data Acquisition 120  
        4.4.1 Manual Data Storage 121  
        4.4.2 Wireless Network 122  
        4.4.3 Gateway or Building Automation System 122  
        4.4.4 Internet-Enabled Sensors 124  
     4.5 Other Related Sensing Technologies 125  
        4.5.1 Indoor Environmental Sensing 125  
        4.5.2 Outdoor Environmental Sensing 126  
     4.6 Conclusion 127  
     References 128  
  5 Introduction to Occupant Research Approaches 132  
     Abstract 132  
     5.1 Introduction 132  
     5.2 Primary Occupant Research Approaches 134  
     5.3 Objective Comparison of Approaches 137  
     5.4 Mixed Methods Research Design 137  
     5.5 Conclusion 149  
     References 150  
  6 In Situ Approaches to Studying Occupants 153  
     Abstract 153  
     6.1 Introduction 153  
     6.2 In Situ Monitoring Approaches 155  
     6.3 Sensors and Data Acquisition Architecture: Practical Considerations 161  
        6.3.1 Building Automation Systems 161  
        6.3.2 Adding Additional Sensors to BASs 164  
        6.3.3 Obtaining BAS Data 165  
        6.3.4 New Sensor Networks 165  
        6.3.5 Distributed Stand-Alone Sensors and Data Loggers 167  
        6.3.6 Image-Based Sensing for in Situ Occupant Monitoring Studies 168  
        6.3.7 Virtual Sensors for in Situ Occupant Monitoring Studies 170  
        6.3.8 Future Sensing Technologies for in Situ Occupant Monitoring Studies 171  
     6.4 Practical and Methodological in Situ Monitoring Challenges 172  
        6.4.1 Sensor Placement and Obstruction 172  
        6.4.2 Ground Truths and Validation of Sensor Readings 178  
        6.4.3 Limited Access to Spaces 178  
        6.4.4 Monitoring Spaces with Multiple Occupants 179  
        6.4.5 Hawthorne Effect 179  
        6.4.6 Participant Recruitment 180  
        6.4.7 Ethical Obligations and Implications of Performing in Situ Monitoring 181  
     6.5 Qualitative Aspects of in Situ Monitoring 182  
     6.6 Use of Surveys to Complement Monitoring 183  
     6.7 Conclusion 187  
     References 188  
  7 Laboratory Approaches to Studying Occupants 192  
     Abstract 192  
     7.1 Laboratories in Indoor Environmental Quality Research 193  
     7.2 Examples of Typical Laboratory Designs and Their Technical Equipment 194  
        7.2.1 International Centre for Indoor Environment and Energy (ICIEE), Technical University of Denmark, Denmark 196  
        7.2.2 Controlled Environmental Chamber, Center for the Built Environment (CBE) 198  
        7.2.3 Indoor Environmental Quality Laboratory (IEQ Lab), University of Sydney, Australia 200  
        7.2.4 Laboratory for Occupant Behavior, Satisfaction, Thermal Comfort and Environmental Research (LOBSTER), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Germany 201  
        7.2.5 SinBerBEST Test Bed, CREATE Tower, Berkeley Education Alliance for Research in Singapore (BEARS) Limited, Singapore 203  
        7.2.6 Respiration Chambers, Metabolic Research Unit Maastricht (MRUM), University of Maastricht, the Netherlands 205  
        7.2.7 Institute for Energy Efficient Buildings and Indoor Climate, E.ON Energy Research Center (E.ON ERC), RWTH Aachen University, Germany 206  
        7.2.8 The ZEB Living Laboratory at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) and SINTEF, Norway 208  
        7.2.9 Indoor Environmental Laboratories at the Fraunhofer Institute for Building Physics (IBP), Germany 210  
        7.2.10 Flight Test Facilities, Fraunhofer Institute for Building Physics (IBP) and Institute for Energy Efficient Buildings and Indoor Climate, RWTH Aachen University 212  
     7.3 Indoor Climate in Labs—Technical Services, Control, Sensors 213  
        7.3.1 Conditioning of Labs 213  
        7.3.2 Solar Incident, Daylight and Acoustics in Test Chambers 215  
        7.3.3 Temperature Control in the Experimental Environment 217  
        7.3.4 Data Acquisition and Sensing Indoor Environmental Quantities 219  
     7.4 Sensors for Personalized Monitoring 221  
        7.4.1 Measuring Skin and Body Temperature 222  
        7.4.2 Measuring the Skin Wettedness 223  
        7.4.3 View Tracking, Measuring Hormone Levels and Monitoring Movements 223  
     7.5 Lab Studies on Occupant Behavior and Considerations with Regard to Lab Design and Equipment 224  
        7.5.1 Options for Experimental Settings 225  
        7.5.2 Recommendations for Lab Design 226  
     7.6 Influencing Factors Driving Occupant’s Behavior and Their Impact on Experimental Design 228  
     7.7 Conclusion 230  
     References 232  
  8 Survey and Interview Approaches to Studying Occupants 236  
     Abstract 236  
     8.1 Introduction 236  
     8.2 Constructing the Survey 238  
        8.2.1 Before Designing the Survey 238  
     8.3 Developing Questions and Constructing the Survey Tool 239  
        8.3.1 Writing Survey Questions 241  
        8.3.2 Types of Questions 241  
        8.3.3 Criteria for Examining Each Survey Question 242  
        8.3.4 Questionnaire Structure 242  
        8.3.5 Ordering Questions 243  
     8.4 Survey Instrument Assessment 243  
        8.4.1 Reliability & Validity 244  
        8.4.2 Types of Survey Errors 245  
        8.4.3 Pre-testing and Pilot Studies 247  
     8.5 Participant Selection and Sample Design 247  
        8.5.1 Alternative Sampling Strategies in Building Research 248  
        8.5.2 Sample Size 249  
     8.6 Available Tools for Survey Delivery 249  
     8.7 Interviews 250  
        8.7.1 Interview Formats 250  
        8.7.2 Types of Interviews 251  
        8.7.3 Conducting the Interview 251  
     8.8 Survey Stories and Lessons Learned in Occupant Behavioral Research 252  
        8.8.1 Field Study of Thermal Comfort and Occupant Satisfaction in Canadian Condominiums 252  
        8.8.2 Energy Consumption in Residential Buildings and Occupants’ Behavior. An Investigation in Mediterranean Climatic Conditions 253  
        8.8.3 On the Behavioral Effects of Residential Electricity Submetering in a Heating Season 254  
        8.8.4 A Norwegian Survey Story: The Use of Qualitative Methods 256  
        8.8.5 Occupants’ Behavior Patterns for Air-Conditioning, Windows, and Lighting 256  
     8.9 Additional Considerations for Occupant Behavior-Related Surveys 257  
        8.9.1 Informed Consent for Online Surveys 257  
        8.9.2 Example of Informed Consent Statement for Survey Study (Day 2014) 258  
     8.10 Conclusion 259  
     References 260  
  9 Validation and Ground Truths 262  
     Abstract 262  
     9.1 Introduction 262  
     9.2 Basic Concepts of Measurement Quality 263  
        9.2.1 Basic Terms of Measurement Quality Performance 263  
        9.2.2 Validation and Verification of Measurement Methods 265  
        9.2.3 Ground Truth in Measurements 266  
     9.3 Measurement of Occupancy and Occupant Behavior 267  
        9.3.1 Physically Sensed Variables 268  
        9.3.2 Reported Variables 271  
     9.4 Verification and Validation of Measurement Methods 273  
        9.4.1 Verification of Measurement Methods 273  
        9.4.2 Validation of Measurement Methods 274  
        9.4.3 Measurement Uncertainties 275  
     9.5 Constructing Ground Truth Datasets 278  
        9.5.1 Validation of Occupant Behavior Measurement 278  
        9.5.2 Appropriateness, Robustness, and Openness 280  
     9.6 Conclusion 281  
     References 282  
  10 Structured Building Data Management: Ontologies, Queries, and Platforms 284  
     Abstract 284  
     10.1 Introduction 285  
     10.2 Outline of an Ontology for Building Monitoring 286  
        10.2.1 General Categories 286  
           10.2.1.1 Occupants 287  
           10.2.1.2 Indoor Environmental Conditions 287  
           10.2.1.3 External Environmental Conditions 287  
           10.2.1.4 Control Systems and Devices 288  
           10.2.1.5 Equipment 288  
           10.2.1.6 Energy 289  
        10.2.2 The Structure of Monitored Data 289  
           10.2.2.1 Values 289  
           10.2.2.2 Actors 291  
           10.2.2.3 Data Sources 291  
        10.2.3 Expressions of the Ontology for Multiple Data Categories 292  
     10.3 Data Processing and Typical Queries 294  
        10.3.1 Periodic Raw Data 295  
        10.3.2 Event Related Raw Data 296  
        10.3.3 Interval Data from BAS (Building Automation System)-Integrated Sensors or Data Loggers 296  
        10.3.4 Practical Examples of Building Monitored Data Processing 297  
           10.3.4.1 Generation of Occupancy Data from PIR-Motion Raw Sensor Data 297  
           10.3.4.2 Generation of Presence Probability Profiles 298  
           10.3.4.3 Generation of Boolean Daily Occupancy Profiles 299  
           10.3.4.4 Use of Electric Energy Meter Data to Determine Usage Profiles 299  
     10.4 Building Monitoring Repositories and Prototypical Implementations 300  
        10.4.1 System Design 301  
        10.4.2 Data Repositories 302  
           10.4.2.1 MySQL Data Repository 302  
           10.4.2.2 Cassandra Data Repository 304  
        10.4.3 Prototypical Implementation—Monitoring System Toolkit (MOST) 305  
        10.4.4 Module Overview 306  
        10.4.5 Virtual Sensor Implementation 306  
     10.5 Conclusion 307  
     References 307  
  11 Ethics and Privacy 310  
     Abstract 310  
     11.1 Introduction 310  
     11.2 Institutions Involved in Ethical Review Processes 312  
     11.3 Review Categories 313  
        11.3.1 Exemption 313  
        11.3.2 Expedited Review 314  
     11.4 Recruitment of Participants 314  
        11.4.1 Selection of Participants 314  
        11.4.2 Vulnerable Populations 315  
     11.5 Risks and Anticipated Benefits 315  
        11.5.1 Identification of Risks 315  
        11.5.2 Minimal Risk 316  
        11.5.3 Hard and Soft Impacts 316  
        11.5.4 Risk Issues Specific to Occupant Behavior Research 316  
        11.5.5 Anticipated Benefits 319  
     11.6 Privacy and Confidentiality 320  
        11.6.1 Anonymous Data 320  
        11.6.2 Privacy in the Use of Personally Identifiable Records 321  
        11.6.3 Potential Steps to Protect Participants’ Privacy 321  
        11.6.4 Data Storage, Processing, and Sharing 322  
     11.7 Informed Consent 323  
     11.8 Submission Procedures for Ethics 324  
     11.9 Debriefing 325  
     11.10 Multiple-Site and Cross-Country Studies 325  
     11.11 Tips for Improving Interactions with Ethics Committee 326  
     11.12 Internet Research Ethics 327  
     11.13 Conclusion 327  
     References 328  
  12 Concluding Remarks and Future Outlook 330  
     Abstract 330  
     12.1 Research Needs 331  
     12.2 Future Outlook 332  


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