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Foreword |
5 |
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Acknowledgements |
7 |
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Contents |
8 |
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Glossary |
10 |
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1 Introduction |
28 |
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Abstract |
28 |
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2 Occupancy and Occupants’ Actions |
33 |
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Abstract |
33 |
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2.1 Introduction |
34 |
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2.2 Categorization of Occupants’ Actions |
36 |
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2.3 Potential Triggers and Contextual Factors Influencing Occupant Behavior in a Building |
39 |
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2.4 Literature Review of Relationship Between Action Types and Influencing Factors |
41 |
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2.5 Conclusion |
57 |
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References |
58 |
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3 Designing Research |
65 |
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Abstract |
65 |
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3.1 Introduction |
65 |
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3.2 Why Do the Research (Research Aims and Questions) |
67 |
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3.3 Identifying the Concepts to Measure and How They Link Together (Theory) |
69 |
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3.3.1 Concepts |
71 |
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3.3.2 One to One Relationships (Links) |
71 |
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3.3.3 One to Many Relationships (Hierarchies) |
72 |
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3.4 Units of Analysis, Populations, and Scope |
73 |
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3.4.1 Units of Analysis |
73 |
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3.4.2 Population of Interest and Scope |
73 |
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3.4.3 Descriptive or Inferential Statistics |
74 |
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3.4.4 Required Precision |
76 |
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3.5 Sampling and Sample Size |
77 |
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3.5.1 Sample Frames |
77 |
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3.5.2 Sampling Strategies |
77 |
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3.5.3 Spatial Sampling |
78 |
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3.5.4 Temporal Sampling |
80 |
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3.5.5 Sample Size Calculations |
81 |
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3.5.6 External Validity |
82 |
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3.5.7 An Illustrative Example of Sample Size Calculations |
84 |
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3.5.8 Internal Validity |
85 |
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3.5.9 Dropouts and Response Rates |
88 |
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3.6 How to Measure Concepts (Methods) |
89 |
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3.6.1 Concepts and Constructs |
89 |
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3.6.2 Operationalizing Constructs into Measurands |
90 |
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3.6.3 Latent Variables |
91 |
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3.6.4 Instruments |
92 |
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3.6.5 Quantifying Uncertainty |
92 |
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3.7 How to Measure Relationships (Research Design) |
93 |
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3.7.1 Descriptive (Correlational) Designs |
95 |
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3.7.2 Case Studies |
95 |
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3.7.3 Cross-Sectional Design |
96 |
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3.7.4 Longitudinal Surveys |
96 |
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3.7.5 Causative (Experimental) Designs |
97 |
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3.8 Pre-analysis Plans |
99 |
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3.9 Conclusion |
100 |
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References |
101 |
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4 Sensing and Data Acquisition |
103 |
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Abstract |
103 |
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4.1 Introduction |
104 |
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4.2 Sensing System Performance Metrics |
105 |
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4.3 Occupant Behavior and Presence Sensing |
106 |
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4.3.1 State-of-the-Art of Occupant Sensing Technologies |
106 |
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4.3.2 Human-in-the-Loop |
118 |
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4.3.3 Consumption Sensing |
119 |
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4.4 Occupant Data Acquisition |
120 |
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4.4.1 Manual Data Storage |
121 |
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4.4.2 Wireless Network |
122 |
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4.4.3 Gateway or Building Automation System |
122 |
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4.4.4 Internet-Enabled Sensors |
124 |
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4.5 Other Related Sensing Technologies |
125 |
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4.5.1 Indoor Environmental Sensing |
125 |
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4.5.2 Outdoor Environmental Sensing |
126 |
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4.6 Conclusion |
127 |
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References |
128 |
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5 Introduction to Occupant Research Approaches |
132 |
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Abstract |
132 |
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5.1 Introduction |
132 |
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5.2 Primary Occupant Research Approaches |
134 |
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5.3 Objective Comparison of Approaches |
137 |
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5.4 Mixed Methods Research Design |
137 |
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5.5 Conclusion |
149 |
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References |
150 |
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6 In Situ Approaches to Studying Occupants |
153 |
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Abstract |
153 |
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6.1 Introduction |
153 |
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6.2 In Situ Monitoring Approaches |
155 |
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6.3 Sensors and Data Acquisition Architecture: Practical Considerations |
161 |
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6.3.1 Building Automation Systems |
161 |
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6.3.2 Adding Additional Sensors to BASs |
164 |
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6.3.3 Obtaining BAS Data |
165 |
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6.3.4 New Sensor Networks |
165 |
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6.3.5 Distributed Stand-Alone Sensors and Data Loggers |
167 |
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6.3.6 Image-Based Sensing for in Situ Occupant Monitoring Studies |
168 |
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6.3.7 Virtual Sensors for in Situ Occupant Monitoring Studies |
170 |
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6.3.8 Future Sensing Technologies for in Situ Occupant Monitoring Studies |
171 |
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6.4 Practical and Methodological in Situ Monitoring Challenges |
172 |
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6.4.1 Sensor Placement and Obstruction |
172 |
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6.4.2 Ground Truths and Validation of Sensor Readings |
178 |
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6.4.3 Limited Access to Spaces |
178 |
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6.4.4 Monitoring Spaces with Multiple Occupants |
179 |
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6.4.5 Hawthorne Effect |
179 |
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6.4.6 Participant Recruitment |
180 |
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6.4.7 Ethical Obligations and Implications of Performing in Situ Monitoring |
181 |
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6.5 Qualitative Aspects of in Situ Monitoring |
182 |
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6.6 Use of Surveys to Complement Monitoring |
183 |
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6.7 Conclusion |
187 |
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References |
188 |
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7 Laboratory Approaches to Studying Occupants |
192 |
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Abstract |
192 |
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7.1 Laboratories in Indoor Environmental Quality Research |
193 |
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7.2 Examples of Typical Laboratory Designs and Their Technical Equipment |
194 |
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7.2.1 International Centre for Indoor Environment and Energy (ICIEE), Technical University of Denmark, Denmark |
196 |
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7.2.2 Controlled Environmental Chamber, Center for the Built Environment (CBE) |
198 |
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7.2.3 Indoor Environmental Quality Laboratory (IEQ Lab), University of Sydney, Australia |
200 |
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7.2.4 Laboratory for Occupant Behavior, Satisfaction, Thermal Comfort and Environmental Research (LOBSTER), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Germany |
201 |
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7.2.5 SinBerBEST Test Bed, CREATE Tower, Berkeley Education Alliance for Research in Singapore (BEARS) Limited, Singapore |
203 |
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7.2.6 Respiration Chambers, Metabolic Research Unit Maastricht (MRUM), University of Maastricht, the Netherlands |
205 |
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7.2.7 Institute for Energy Efficient Buildings and Indoor Climate, E.ON Energy Research Center (E.ON ERC), RWTH Aachen University, Germany |
206 |
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7.2.8 The ZEB Living Laboratory at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) and SINTEF, Norway |
208 |
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7.2.9 Indoor Environmental Laboratories at the Fraunhofer Institute for Building Physics (IBP), Germany |
210 |
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7.2.10 Flight Test Facilities, Fraunhofer Institute for Building Physics (IBP) and Institute for Energy Efficient Buildings and Indoor Climate, RWTH Aachen University |
212 |
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7.3 Indoor Climate in Labs—Technical Services, Control, Sensors |
213 |
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7.3.1 Conditioning of Labs |
213 |
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7.3.2 Solar Incident, Daylight and Acoustics in Test Chambers |
215 |
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7.3.3 Temperature Control in the Experimental Environment |
217 |
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7.3.4 Data Acquisition and Sensing Indoor Environmental Quantities |
219 |
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7.4 Sensors for Personalized Monitoring |
221 |
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7.4.1 Measuring Skin and Body Temperature |
222 |
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7.4.2 Measuring the Skin Wettedness |
223 |
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7.4.3 View Tracking, Measuring Hormone Levels and Monitoring Movements |
223 |
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7.5 Lab Studies on Occupant Behavior and Considerations with Regard to Lab Design and Equipment |
224 |
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7.5.1 Options for Experimental Settings |
225 |
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7.5.2 Recommendations for Lab Design |
226 |
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7.6 Influencing Factors Driving Occupant’s Behavior and Their Impact on Experimental Design |
228 |
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7.7 Conclusion |
230 |
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References |
232 |
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8 Survey and Interview Approaches to Studying Occupants |
236 |
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Abstract |
236 |
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8.1 Introduction |
236 |
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8.2 Constructing the Survey |
238 |
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8.2.1 Before Designing the Survey |
238 |
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8.3 Developing Questions and Constructing the Survey Tool |
239 |
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8.3.1 Writing Survey Questions |
241 |
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8.3.2 Types of Questions |
241 |
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8.3.3 Criteria for Examining Each Survey Question |
242 |
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8.3.4 Questionnaire Structure |
242 |
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8.3.5 Ordering Questions |
243 |
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8.4 Survey Instrument Assessment |
243 |
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8.4.1 Reliability & Validity |
244 |
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8.4.2 Types of Survey Errors |
245 |
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8.4.3 Pre-testing and Pilot Studies |
247 |
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8.5 Participant Selection and Sample Design |
247 |
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8.5.1 Alternative Sampling Strategies in Building Research |
248 |
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8.5.2 Sample Size |
249 |
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8.6 Available Tools for Survey Delivery |
249 |
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8.7 Interviews |
250 |
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8.7.1 Interview Formats |
250 |
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8.7.2 Types of Interviews |
251 |
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8.7.3 Conducting the Interview |
251 |
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8.8 Survey Stories and Lessons Learned in Occupant Behavioral Research |
252 |
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8.8.1 Field Study of Thermal Comfort and Occupant Satisfaction in Canadian Condominiums |
252 |
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8.8.2 Energy Consumption in Residential Buildings and Occupants’ Behavior. An Investigation in Mediterranean Climatic Conditions |
253 |
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8.8.3 On the Behavioral Effects of Residential Electricity Submetering in a Heating Season |
254 |
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8.8.4 A Norwegian Survey Story: The Use of Qualitative Methods |
256 |
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8.8.5 Occupants’ Behavior Patterns for Air-Conditioning, Windows, and Lighting |
256 |
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8.9 Additional Considerations for Occupant Behavior-Related Surveys |
257 |
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8.9.1 Informed Consent for Online Surveys |
257 |
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8.9.2 Example of Informed Consent Statement for Survey Study (Day 2014) |
258 |
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8.10 Conclusion |
259 |
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References |
260 |
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9 Validation and Ground Truths |
262 |
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Abstract |
262 |
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9.1 Introduction |
262 |
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9.2 Basic Concepts of Measurement Quality |
263 |
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9.2.1 Basic Terms of Measurement Quality Performance |
263 |
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9.2.2 Validation and Verification of Measurement Methods |
265 |
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9.2.3 Ground Truth in Measurements |
266 |
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9.3 Measurement of Occupancy and Occupant Behavior |
267 |
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9.3.1 Physically Sensed Variables |
268 |
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9.3.2 Reported Variables |
271 |
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9.4 Verification and Validation of Measurement Methods |
273 |
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9.4.1 Verification of Measurement Methods |
273 |
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9.4.2 Validation of Measurement Methods |
274 |
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9.4.3 Measurement Uncertainties |
275 |
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9.5 Constructing Ground Truth Datasets |
278 |
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9.5.1 Validation of Occupant Behavior Measurement |
278 |
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9.5.2 Appropriateness, Robustness, and Openness |
280 |
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9.6 Conclusion |
281 |
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References |
282 |
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10 Structured Building Data Management: Ontologies, Queries, and Platforms |
284 |
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Abstract |
284 |
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10.1 Introduction |
285 |
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10.2 Outline of an Ontology for Building Monitoring |
286 |
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10.2.1 General Categories |
286 |
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10.2.1.1 Occupants |
287 |
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10.2.1.2 Indoor Environmental Conditions |
287 |
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10.2.1.3 External Environmental Conditions |
287 |
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10.2.1.4 Control Systems and Devices |
288 |
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10.2.1.5 Equipment |
288 |
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10.2.1.6 Energy |
289 |
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10.2.2 The Structure of Monitored Data |
289 |
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10.2.2.1 Values |
289 |
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10.2.2.2 Actors |
291 |
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10.2.2.3 Data Sources |
291 |
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10.2.3 Expressions of the Ontology for Multiple Data Categories |
292 |
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10.3 Data Processing and Typical Queries |
294 |
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10.3.1 Periodic Raw Data |
295 |
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10.3.2 Event Related Raw Data |
296 |
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10.3.3 Interval Data from BAS (Building Automation System)-Integrated Sensors or Data Loggers |
296 |
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10.3.4 Practical Examples of Building Monitored Data Processing |
297 |
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10.3.4.1 Generation of Occupancy Data from PIR-Motion Raw Sensor Data |
297 |
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10.3.4.2 Generation of Presence Probability Profiles |
298 |
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10.3.4.3 Generation of Boolean Daily Occupancy Profiles |
299 |
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10.3.4.4 Use of Electric Energy Meter Data to Determine Usage Profiles |
299 |
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10.4 Building Monitoring Repositories and Prototypical Implementations |
300 |
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10.4.1 System Design |
301 |
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10.4.2 Data Repositories |
302 |
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10.4.2.1 MySQL Data Repository |
302 |
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10.4.2.2 Cassandra Data Repository |
304 |
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10.4.3 Prototypical Implementation—Monitoring System Toolkit (MOST) |
305 |
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10.4.4 Module Overview |
306 |
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10.4.5 Virtual Sensor Implementation |
306 |
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10.5 Conclusion |
307 |
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References |
307 |
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11 Ethics and Privacy |
310 |
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Abstract |
310 |
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11.1 Introduction |
310 |
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11.2 Institutions Involved in Ethical Review Processes |
312 |
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11.3 Review Categories |
313 |
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11.3.1 Exemption |
313 |
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11.3.2 Expedited Review |
314 |
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11.4 Recruitment of Participants |
314 |
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11.4.1 Selection of Participants |
314 |
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11.4.2 Vulnerable Populations |
315 |
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11.5 Risks and Anticipated Benefits |
315 |
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11.5.1 Identification of Risks |
315 |
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11.5.2 Minimal Risk |
316 |
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11.5.3 Hard and Soft Impacts |
316 |
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11.5.4 Risk Issues Specific to Occupant Behavior Research |
316 |
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11.5.5 Anticipated Benefits |
319 |
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11.6 Privacy and Confidentiality |
320 |
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11.6.1 Anonymous Data |
320 |
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11.6.2 Privacy in the Use of Personally Identifiable Records |
321 |
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11.6.3 Potential Steps to Protect Participants’ Privacy |
321 |
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11.6.4 Data Storage, Processing, and Sharing |
322 |
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11.7 Informed Consent |
323 |
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11.8 Submission Procedures for Ethics |
324 |
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11.9 Debriefing |
325 |
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11.10 Multiple-Site and Cross-Country Studies |
325 |
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11.11 Tips for Improving Interactions with Ethics Committee |
326 |
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11.12 Internet Research Ethics |
327 |
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11.13 Conclusion |
327 |
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References |
328 |
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12 Concluding Remarks and Future Outlook |
330 |
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Abstract |
330 |
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12.1 Research Needs |
331 |
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12.2 Future Outlook |
332 |
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