Preface	6
	Contents	8
	Part I Industry Perspectives	10
	1 EV Business Models in a Wider Context: Balancing Change and Continuity in the Automotive Industry	11
	Abstract	11
	1 Introduction	11
	2 Business Model Innovation and EVs: The Search for the Right Formula	12
	2.1 The Tesla Case	14
	2.2 The Autolib Case	16
	3 Constraints on Innovation: Continuity in the Automotive Industry	18
	4 Countervailing Pressures for Change in the Automotive Industry	19
	5 Market Incentives or a New State-Business Relationship?	20
	6 Conclusions	22
	References	22
	2 Four Business Models for a Fast Commercialization of Plug-in Cars	25
	Abstract	25
	1 Introduction	25
	2 Terminology	26
	3 What Is a Business Model?	26
	4 Why the Current Business Model for Cars Doesn't Work for Plug-in Cars	27
	5 Issues to Address for a Successful Diffusion of Plug-in Cars	28
	5.1 Social Dilemma Problems	28
	5.2 Diffusion of Innovations	28
	6 The Business Model Generation Process	29
	7 Business Model Descriptions	30
	7.1 Conditions	30
	8 Four Alternative Business Models	31
	8.1 BM1: Free-Floating All-Electric City Cars	31
	8.1.1 The Initial Idea	31
	8.1.2 How It Works	31
	8.1.3 Diffusion Strengths	32
	8.1.4 Viability Factors	33
	8.2 BM2: Plug-in Cars as Company Cars	33
	8.2.1 The Initial Idea	33
	8.2.2 How It Works	33
	8.2.3 Diffusion Strengths	34
	8.2.4 Viability Factors	35
	8.3 BM3: All-Electric Car Subscription	35
	8.3.1 The Initial Idea	35
	8.3.2 How It Works	35
	8.3.3 Diffusion Strengths	36
	8.3.4 Viability Factors	37
	8.4 BM4: Leasing Chain for All-Electric Cars	37
	8.4.1 The Initial Idea	37
	8.4.2 How It Works	38
	8.4.3 Diffusion Strengths	38
	8.4.4 Viability Factors	39
	9 Social Dilemma Problems Revisited	39
	10 Conclusion	40
	10.1 Limitations	41
	Acknowledgments	41
	References	42
	3 Electrification of the Powertrain in Automotive Applications: ``Technology Push'' or ``Market Pull''?	43
	Abstract	43
	1 Introduction	44
	1.1 Problem and Motivation	44
	1.2 Automotive Industry's Current Situation and Future	45
	2 Barriers in the Powertrain Electrification	46
	2.1 Lack of Infrastructure	46
	2.2 Poor Performances of the Battery	47
	2.3 Eternal Comeback of the Fuel Cell	48
	3 Disruptive Technologies	50
	3.1 Introduction of a New Technology	50
	3.2 Market Pull Versus Technology Push	51
	3.3 Regulatory Push	52
	3.4 Market for the Electric Vehicles	53
	4 Key Enablers for the Future Mass Market: The ``3C''	54
	4.1 No Loss of Comfort	54
	4.2 Low Climatic Dependency	55
	4.3 Lower Costs	55
	4.4 Enablers and Vision	56
	5 Conclusion	57
	Acknowledgments	59
	References	59
	Part II Recharging	60
	4 Identification of Market Models and Associated Billing Strategies for the Provision of EV Charging Services	61
	Abstract	61
	1 Introduction	61
	2 Market Models	62
	2.1 Charging Infrastructure in the Public Domain	62
	2.2 Private Charging Infrastructure	64
	2.3 Home Charging Infrastructure	65
	3 Billing Structures	66
	3.1 Payment Method	66
	3.1.1 Prepaid Methods	67
	3.1.2 Postpaid Methods	68
	3.1.3 Combined Billing Structures	69
	3.2 Billing Rate	69
	4 Correlated Factors	70
	4.1 Location of Charging	70
	4.2 Parking and Mobility Policies	70
	4.3 Type of End User	71
	5 Conclusions	72
	References	72
	5 Business Case for EV Charging on the Motorway Network in Denmark	73
	Abstract	73
	1 Background	73
	2 EV Charging Solutions Applied in Denmark	74
	3 The Danish EV Recharging Market	76
	4 Charging Specifications of EVs on the Danish Market 2013--2014	78
	5 Duration of Charging Sessions	79
	6 Distribution of EV Charging According to Location of Charging Station	81
	7 Market Uptake of EVs in Denmark	82
	8 EV Charging Station Located on the Motorway Network	83
	9 Provision of Power to Charging Stations on the Motorway Network	85
	10 Business Case for Establishing EV Recharging Station on the Danish Motorway Network	85
	11 Conclusion	91
	A.x(118). Appendix	92
	References	92
	6 Pricing Plug-in Electric Vehicle Recharging in Multi-unit Dwellings: Financial Viability and Fueling Costs	94
	Abstract	94
	1 Introduction	94
	1.1 Background, Objectives, and Article Structure	94
	2 Methods and Assumptions	95
	2.1 MUD Recharging Facility Financial Model Elements	95
	2.1.1 Costs	96
	2.1.2 Financial Assumptions	97
	2.1.3 Facility Utilization Assumptions	98
	2.2 Fueling Costs Calculations for Resident Drivers: Additional Inputs	98
	3 Results and Discussion	99
	3.1 MUD Recharging Facility Financial Viability and Pricing Options	99
	3.1.1 Residential Recharging Facility Financial Viability	99
	3.1.2 Sensitivity and Uncertainty Analysis of Financial Viability	101
	Summary and Comparison of Uncertainty Across Fee Structures	104
	3.1.3 Revenue Scenarios: Increasing Utilization to Improve Cost Recovery	104
	3.2 Fueling-Cost Benchmarks: MUD Charging and Gasoline Equivalents	107
	3.2.1 Sensitivity and Uncertainty Analysis of Driver Cost Calculations	109
	4 Conclusions	110
	Acknowledgments	111
	References	111
	7 Solutions and Business Models for Wireless Charging of Electric Vehicles	113
	Abstract	113
	1 Introduction to Wireless Technology	113
	2 Wireless Vehicle Features	115
	3 Toward a Wireless City: Vision of the Future	117
	3.1 Static Wireless City	117
	3.2 Static En-route Wireless City	119
	3.2.1 Case Study of Static En-route Charging for a Bus Service	119
	3.2.2 Taxi Cabs	124
	3.3 Dynamic Wireless City	125
	4 Available Service for Users	126
	5 Conclusions	127
	References	128
	Part III Energy Systems	130
	8 Electric Vehicles as Grid Support	131
	Abstract	131
	1 Introduction	131
	2 How Do Electricity Grids Work?	132
	3 What Are the Characteristics of Electric Vehicles Relevant to Grid Support?	133
	4 How Could EVs Provide Grid Support?	137
	4.1 Off-peak Charging	137
	4.2 Optimized Charging	138
	4.3 Grid Storage for Emergency Back-up	139
	4.4 General Grid Storage	140
	4.5 Grid Storage for Renewables Integration	141
	4.6 Grid Storage for Ancillary Services	142
	5 The Path Forwards	143
	6 Conclusion	145
	References	145
	9 Energy Efficiency in Electric and Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles and Its Impact on Total Cost of Ownership	149
	Abstract	149
	1 Introduction	149
	2 EV/PHEV Design to Reduce Energy Demand During Driving Conditions	150
	2.1 EV/PHEV Body Aerodynamics	150
	2.2 EV/PHEV Kerb Weight	151
	2.3 EV/PHEV On-Board or Off-Board Charging	153
	3 Demand from Auxiliary (Non Power Train) Loads/Functions	154
	4 Battery Cycle Life and State of Health	155
	5 Smart Battery Charging	156
	6 Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) of EV/PHEV	157
	7 EV/PHEV CO2 Impact and Production Costs	159
	8 EV/PHEV New Business Models and TCO Reduction Contributions Across Industries and Regulatory Context	161
	9 Conclusions	162
	References	163
	Part IV Fleets	168
	10 Evolution of E-Mobility in Carsharing Business Models	169
	Abstract	169
	1 Introduction	169
	2 Electric Vehicles in Carsharing	170
	2.1 Station Car Programmes	170
	2.2 Roundtrip Carsharing	171
	2.3 Hybrid Station Car/Carsharing Models	172
	2.4 One-Way Carsharing	172
	2.5 Lessons Learned	173
	3 Current and Projected Growth of EV Carsharing	174
	3.1 E-Mobility Systems by Automakers	174
	3.2 Re-Emergence into Existing Carsharing Fleets	175
	4 Conclusion	176
	References	176
	11 Personalized Total Cost of Ownership and Range-Capability Assessment as an EV Sales Accelerator	179
	Abstract	179
	1 Why Does Personalization Matter?	180
	2 How Does It Work?	182
	2.1 Introduction	182
	2.1.1 Model-Based Design	182
	2.1.2 Model Library Generation	183
	2.1.3 Electric Vehicle Suitability and Costing	184
	2.1.4 Electric Vehicle Monitoring	184
	2.2 Methodology	185
	2.2.1 Electric Vehicle Modelling and Simulation Process	185
	2.2.2 Electric Vehicle Monitoring Process	185
	2.3 Accuracy	186
	3 Results	186
	3.1 A City in Eastern Canada	186
	3.2 A University in Western Canada	189
	3.3 A Town in Eastern Canada	190
	3.4 MyCarma for Personal Use	191
	4 General Conclusions	192
	References	193
	Part V Case Studies	194
	12 Business Models for Electric Vehicles: Lessons from the Japanese EV Ecosystem	195
	Abstract	195
	1 Introduction	195
	2 Case Study Data	196
	3 The Development of a Charging Network	197
	4 Mobility-as-a-Service Business Models	200
	4.1 Case 1: Okinawa Electric Vehicle Rental Service	200
	4.1.1 Challenges of the Okinawa EV Rental Service	202
	4.1.2 Outcomes of the Okinawa EV Rental Service	203
	4.1.3 Lessons for EV Mobility Services	203
	4.2 Case 2: E-Mobility Services in Smart City Projects (Kashiwa and Toyota-City Trials)	204
	5 Energy Service Business Models	206
	6 Conclusions	209
	References	210
	13 Orchestrating Ecosystem Co-opetition: Case Studies on the Business Models of the EV Demonstration Programme in China	212
	Abstract	212
	1 Introduction	212
	2 The Business Ecosystem Framework	213
	2.1 Business Ecosystem Review	213
	2.2 EV Business Ecosystem Structure	214
	3 The Chinese Electric Vehicle Demonstration Programme	216
	3.1 Demonstration Programme Overview	216
	3.2 Demonstration Programme: Hangzhou's Battery Swapping Model	217
	3.3 Demonstration Programme: Shenzhen's Battery Charging Model	218
	4 Competing and Co-existing Business Models	219
	4.1 Business Model Review	219
	4.2 Competing and Co-existing EV Business Models in China	220
	5 Findings	222
	6 Conclusion	223
	References	223
	14 EVs to Reduce Dependence on Imported Oil: Challenges and Lessons from Maui	225
	Abstract	225
	1 Why Hawaii Needs EVs	226
	2 Hawaii: The State, The Counties, The Islands	227
	3 State Policies and Incentives for Early Adopters	230
	4 Maui as a Test-Bed for EVs	232
	5 Maui Electric Vehicle Alliance	234
	6 Residents to Prepare for Visitors	236
	7 Lessons Learned from Maui EVA	238
	7.1 Planning and Coordination to Avoid Inconvenience	239
	7.2 The PV to EV Link: The Key to Greater EV Adoption	240
	7.3 Incentives and Penalties for Charging Infrastructure Deployment	240
	References	242
	15 Charging up Chile: Enabling Shared, Electric Mobility in an Emerging Market	244
	Abstract	244
	1 Introduction: Chilean Context, Demographics, Existing EVs, and Charging Infrastructure	245
	1.1 Jurisdictional Structure	246
	1.2 Chilean Vehicle Ownership Trends	247
	1.3 Energy Production Portfolio and Pricing in Chile	248
	1.4 Existing Electric Vehicles, Charging Stations, and E-Mobility Policy in Chile	249
	1.5 Electric Charging Infrastructure in Santiago de Chile	250
	2 Vehicle Sharing as a Cost Reduction Measure for Enabling Electric Mobility	252
	2.1 Colectivo Scenario (Dedicated Driver, Payment Per Trip)	252
	2.2 Traditional Vehicle Sharing Scenario (User-Driven, Payment by Rental Time or Mileage)	253
	3 EV Charging Station and Metro Station Accessibility Analysis	255
	3.1 Metro Station Location and Household Income	256
	3.2 Metro Station Pedestrian Accessibility (5, 10, 15 min) and Household Income	256
	3.3 EV Charging Station Driving Accessibility (5, 10, 15 min) and Household Income	258
	3.4 Holistic Urban Accessibility and Future Charging Station Opportunities Analysis	259
	4 Lithium Production and Electric Mobility	260
	5 Conclusions and Extension to Other Latin American Markets	264
	Acknowledgments	265
	References	265