Contents	6
	List of Contributors	8
	Chapter 1: Lighting a Path While Immersed in Presence: A Wayward Introduction	16
	1.1 Introduction	17
	1.2 Telepresence: Defining and Operationalizing a Construct	18
	1.3 Telepresence: Research and Design	21
	1.4 Telepresence: Applications	22
	References	23
	Part I: Telepresence Concepts and Theories	25
	Chapter 2: Defining Presence	26
	2.1 Benefits and Dangers of Standardizing Presence Definitions and Terminology	27
	2.2 Historical Overview of Presence Definitions and Terminology	28
	2.3 A Framework for Presence Definitions	30
	2.3.1 Is Technology Involved in the Phenomenon?	30
	2.3.2 What Is the Phenomenon a Property Of?	30
	2.3.3 What Is the Source of the Stimuli?	32
	2.3.4 How Is Technology Perceived?	33
	2.3.5 What Aspect of the Phenomenon Is of Interest?	35
	2.3.5.1 Spatial Presence	35
	2.3.5.2 Social Presence	36
	2.3.5.3 Self Presence	38
	2.3.5.4 Engagement	38
	2.3.5.5 Realism	38
	2.3.5.6 Cultural Presence	39
	2.3.5.7 Parapresence	39
	2.4 Recommendations	40
	2.4.1 Explicitly Identify the Conceptual Definition of Presence You Are Using	41
	2.4.2 Resist the Temptation to Create New Presence Definitions and Terms	41
	2.4.3 Use Presence Terminology as Precisely and Consistently as Possible	41
	2.5 Conclusion	43
	References	44
	Chapter 3: Presence: Form, Content and Consciousness	48
	3.1 Introduction	48
	3.2 Formal Requirements for Presence	51
	3.3 Presence and the Conscious Self	53
	3.3.1 The Evolutionary Levels of Selfhood	54
	3.3.2 The Three Layers of Presence	56
	3.3.2.1 The First Layer: Proto Presence	56
	3.3.2.2 The Second Layer: Core Presence	57
	3.3.2.3 The Third Layer: Extended Presence	57
	3.4 Presence and Psychotherapy	59
	3.5 Presence and Absence	61
	3.5.1 The Phenomenology of Presence and Absence	61
	3.5.2 On the Measurement of Presence	63
	3.5.2.1 Lessons from Synesthesia	63
	3.5.2.2 Brain Measures and Action	65
	3.5.3 Measuring Absence	66
	3.6 Conclusions	67
	References	68
	Chapter 4: Affect, Availability and Presence	72
	4.1 Introduction	72
	4.2 Thinking and Feeling	73
	4.3 So, to What Is This Affective Response, a Response?	74
	4.4 The Primacy of Affect	75
	4.5 First Impression as Intentions in Action	75
	4.6 The Evaluative Power of Affect	76
	4.7 Availability	77
	4.8 Affordance	78
	4.9 The Neuro-dynamics of Intentionality	78
	4.10 The Intentional Arc	79
	4.11 Discussion	81
	References	83
	Chapter 5: Intention, Action, Self and Other: An Evolutionary Model of Presence	85
	5.1 Introduction	86
	5.2 The Theoretical Background	87
	5.2.1 Evolution and Presence	87
	5.2.2 Embodied Cognition: Linking Action and Perception	89
	5.2.3 From Cognitive to Volitional: The Activity Theory Perspective	91
	5.2.4 From Volitional to Cognitive: The Dynamic Theory of Intentions	93
	5.3 Our Theoretical Stance	95
	5.3.1 From Intentions to Presence	95
	5.3.2 The Layers of Presence	97
	5.3.3 From Presence to Social Presence	98
	5.3.4 The Layers of Social Presence	100
	5.3.5 Intentions, Presence and Self	101
	5.4 Designing Optimal Presence	102
	5.5 Conclusions	104
	References	106
	Chapter 6: An Action-Based Approach to Presence: Foundations and Methods	112
	6.1 Introduction	112
	6.2 Foundations	113
	6.2.1 Space: The “There” in “Being There”	113
	6.2.2 Action: Presence as a Practical Achievement	114
	6.2.3 Mediation: Tools and Their Specificities	115
	6.3 Implications	116
	6.3.1 Beyond the Separation Between Real and Digital	117
	6.3.2 Beyond a Neutral, Objective Treatment of the Mediated Environment	117
	6.3.3 Beyond Presence as an Intimate State	117
	6.4 Studying Presence by Collecting Actions	118
	6.5 Driving as Mediated Presence	118
	6.6 Conclusions	121
	References	122
	Chapter 7: Spatial Presence Theory: State of the Art and Challenges Ahead	126
	7.1 Introduction	127
	7.2 Conceptualizations of Spatial Presence – A Review	128
	7.2.1 What Is the Phenomenon of “Spatial Presence” About?	128
	7.2.2 Draper and Colleagues: Attention as a Key Determinant of Spatial Presence	130
	7.2.3 Steuer: Mapping the Sensory Stimuli Impinging on Our Senses	131
	7.2.4 Slater and Colleagues: Spatial Presence as a Gestalt and Binary State	132
	7.2.5 Schubert and Colleagues: Spatial Presence as Embodied Cognition	135
	7.2.6 Wirth and Colleagues: Spatial Presence Resulting From a Confirmed Perceptual Hypothesis	136
	7.2.7 Schubert: A new Conception of Spatial Presence – Once Again, With a Feeling	138
	7.3 A Brief Conclusion and Four Challenges Ahead	139
	7.3.1 Can Users Feel Spatially Present in Non-interactive Settings?	140
	7.3.2 Spatial Presence: A Binary or Continuous Experience?	140
	7.3.3 Is There a “Hot Route” to Spatial Presence Experiences?	141
	7.3.4 Dual Systems: Is Spatial Presence Affected by Reflective Processing?	141
	References	142
	Part II: Telepresence Research and Design	147
	Chapter 8: Ways to Measure Spatial Presence: Review and Future Directions	148
	8.1 Introduction	149
	8.1.1 Characteristics of Spatial Presence	149
	8.1.2 Which Kind of Measures Are Needed?	150
	8.1.3 Classification of Presence Measures	151
	8.2 Subjective Methods	151
	8.2.1 Post-test Rating Scales/Questionnaires	152
	8.2.1.1 Early Efforts to Measure Presence by Questionnaires	152
	SUS (Slater et al. 1994, 1995)	152
	Kim and Biocca’s (1997) Questionnaire	153
	Barfield et al. (1998) Presence Questionnaire	153
	8.2.1.2 Multidimensional Presence Questionnaires	154
	Presence Questionnaire (PQ), Witmer and Singer (1998)	154
	Sas and O’Hare’s (2001) Presence Questionnaire	155
	Biocca et al. (2001)	155
	Igroup Presence Questionnaire (IPQ) (Schubert et al. 2001)	156
	ITC Sense of Presence Inventory (ITC-SOPI) (Lessiter et al. 2001)	156
	MEC-SPQ (Böcking et al. 2004	157
	TPI (The Temple Presence Inventory	158
	8.2.1.3 Evaluation of the Presence Questionnaires	158
	8.2.2 Continuous Subjective Presence Assessment Techniques	159
	8.2.2.1 Continuous Presence Assessment by a Slider	160
	8.2.2.2 Continuous Presence Assessment by a Counter	160
	8.2.3 Psychophysical Measures	161
	8.2.3.1 Magnitude Estimation	161
	8.2.3.2 Method of Paired Comparisons	161
	8.2.4 Qualitative Measures	162
	8.2.4.1 Interviews	162
	8.2.4.2 Continuous Verbal Reporting	163
	8.2.4.3 Experience Sampling Method (ESM)	163
	8.2.4.4 Repertory Grid Analysis	163
	8.2.4.5 Ethnographic Techniques	164
	8.2.4.6 Focus Groups	164
	8.2.4.7 Evaluation	164
	8.2.5 Overall Evaluation of Subjective Measures of Presence	165
	8.3 Objective Methods	165
	8.3.1 Behavioural Measures	166
	8.3.1.1 Direct Observation of Adaptive Behaviours Evoked by Virtual Dangers	166
	8.3.1.2 Postural Adjustments and Other Forms of Body Movement	168
	8.3.1.3 Attention-Based Measures	168
	8.3.1.4 Summary Evaluation of Behavioural Measures	169
	8.3.2 Performance Measures	170
	8.3.2.1 Performance on Manipulation Tasks	170
	8.3.2.2 Memory for Events/Recollection	171
	8.3.2.3 Other Possible Performance Measures	171
	8.3.2.4 Summary Evaluation of Performance Measures	172
	8.3.3 Psychophysiological Measures	173
	8.3.3.1 Eye-Related Measures	173
	Eye Movements	173
	Pupillary Responses	174
	Overall Evaluation of Eye-Based Measures	175
	8.3.3.2 Brain-Related Measures	175
	EEG	176
	Other Brain-Related Measures	177
	Summary Evaluation of Brain-Based Measures	178
	8.3.3.3 Heart-Related Measures	178
	Changes in Heart Rate	178
	Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia	180
	8.3.3.4 Other Psychophysiological Measures	180
	Electrodermal Activity	180
	Electromyography	181
	8.3.3.5 Summary Evaluation of Psychophysiological Methods	182
	8.3.4 Prospects and Limitations of Objective Measures of Presence	183
	8.4 Comparing Different Methods to Measure Presence	184
	8.5 Conclusions	186
	References	187
	Chapter 9: An Integrative Approach to Presence and Self-­Motion Perception Research	195
	9.1 Motivation and Background	197
	9.1.1 Spatial Orientation Problems in VR	197
	9.1.2 Spatial Misperception in VR	198
	9.1.3 The Challenge of Self-Motion Simulation	199
	9.2 Literature Overview on the Perception of Illusory Self-­Motion (Vection)	201
	9.2.1 Size of the Visual FOV	203
	9.2.2 Foreground-Background Separation Between a Stationary Foreground and a Moving Background	203
	9.2.3 Spatial Frequency of the Moving Visual Pattern	204
	9.2.4 Velocity and Direction of the Visual Stimulus	205
	9.2.5 Eye Movements	206
	9.2.6 Non-visual Cues and Multimodal Consistency	206
	9.2.7 Cognitive, Attentional, and Higher-Level Influences on Vection	210
	9.3 A Selective Review on Presence	213
	9.3.1 Presence and Reference Frames	215
	9.3.2 Resence and Self-Motion Perception	216
	9.3.3 Conclusions	216
	9.4 Experiments Investigating the Relations Between Spatial Presence, Scene Consistency and Self-Motion Perception	217
	9.4.1 Methods	218
	9.4.2 Hypotheses	218
	9.4.3 Results and Discussion	219
	9.4.4 Experiment 2 – Unobtrusive Modifications of a Projection Screen Can Facilitate Both Vection and Presence	220
	9.4.5 Correlations Between Presence Factors and Vection Measures	222
	9.5 Discussion: A Direct Link Between Presence and Vection?	224
	9.5.1 Low-Level vs. Higher-Level Influences in Experiment 1 & 2	224
	9.5.1.1 Number of Vertical High-Contrast Edges	224
	9.5.1.2 Pathway (A): Increase in Perceived Depth and Perceived Self-­Motion Velocity	226
	9.5.1.3 Pathway (B): Perceived Foreground-Background Separation and Perceived Background Motion	227
	9.5.1.4 Pathway (C): Presence and the Assumption of a Stable Reference Frame	227
	9.5.2 Origin of Vection- and Presence-Enhancing Effect of Adding Marks to the Projection Screen	228
	9.6 Conclusions and Conceptual Framework	231
	9.7 Outlook	234
	References	234
	Chapter 10: Patterns of Place: An Integrated Approach for the Design and Evaluation of Real and Virtual Environments	244
	10.1 Introduction	245
	10.2 A Human Computer Interaction Based Approach to Sense of Presence	246
	10.3 The Place Probe	249
	10.4 A Pattern Based Approach to Design	254
	10.4.1 Technology Patterns	255
	10.4.2 Patterns of Spatial Characteristics	256
	10.4.3 Patterns of Meanings and Affect	258
	10.4.4 Activity Patterns	259
	10.5 Conclusions	261
	Appendix: The Place Probe	262
	Instructions	262
	Background Information	263
	Description	263
	Map	263
	Features	263
	Pictures	263
	Sounds	263
	Words	264
	References	266
	Part III: Telepresence Applications	268
	Chapter 11: Collaboration in Immersive and Non-­immersive Virtual Environments	269
	11.1 Introduction	270
	11.2 Technologies	272
	11.2.1 Puppeteered Avatars	272
	11.2.2 Tracked Avatars	273
	11.2.3 Reconstructed Avatars	275
	11.3 Impact of Avatars	276
	11.3.1 Individual Response	277
	11.3.2 Responses to User Avatars	278
	11.4 Presence and Co-presence	279
	11.4.1 Modality	280
	11.4.2 Realism	281
	11.4.3 Context	282
	11.5 End-States	283
	11.6 Challenges	285
	References	286
	Chapter 12: Presence-Inducing Media for Mental Health Applications	289
	12.1 Introduction	290
	12.2 Virtual Reality as Presence-Inducing Technology	291
	12.2.1 The Link Between Presence and Therapeutic Change	292
	12.2.2 The Link Between Presence and Emotions	295
	12.3 Virtual Reality in Mental Health Treatments	298
	12.3.1 Phobias	305
	12.3.1.1 Acrophobia	305
	12.3.1.2 Claustrophobia	306
	12.3.1.3 Small Animal Phobia	307
	12.3.1.4 Flying Phobia	308
	12.3.1.5 Driving Phobia	309
	12.3.1.6 Public Speaking Fear/Social Phobia	310
	12.3.2 Panic Disorder and Agoraphobia.	311
	12.3.3 Eating Disorders and Obesity	312
	12.3.4 Post-traumatic Stress Disorder	316
	12.3.5 Pain Treatment	317
	12.3.6 Other Treatments	320
	12.3.7 The Limitations of Virtual Reality	321
	12.4 Conclusions and Future Perspectives	322
	References	325