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Contents |
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List of Contributors |
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Chapter 1: Lighting a Path While Immersed in Presence: A Wayward Introduction |
16 |
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1.1 Introduction |
17 |
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1.2 Telepresence: Defining and Operationalizing a Construct |
18 |
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1.3 Telepresence: Research and Design |
21 |
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1.4 Telepresence: Applications |
22 |
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References |
23 |
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Part I: Telepresence Concepts and Theories |
25 |
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Chapter 2: Defining Presence |
26 |
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2.1 Benefits and Dangers of Standardizing Presence Definitions and Terminology |
27 |
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2.2 Historical Overview of Presence Definitions and Terminology |
28 |
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2.3 A Framework for Presence Definitions |
30 |
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2.3.1 Is Technology Involved in the Phenomenon? |
30 |
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2.3.2 What Is the Phenomenon a Property Of? |
30 |
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2.3.3 What Is the Source of the Stimuli? |
32 |
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2.3.4 How Is Technology Perceived? |
33 |
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2.3.5 What Aspect of the Phenomenon Is of Interest? |
35 |
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2.3.5.1 Spatial Presence |
35 |
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2.3.5.2 Social Presence |
36 |
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2.3.5.3 Self Presence |
38 |
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2.3.5.4 Engagement |
38 |
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2.3.5.5 Realism |
38 |
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2.3.5.6 Cultural Presence |
39 |
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2.3.5.7 Parapresence |
39 |
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2.4 Recommendations |
40 |
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2.4.1 Explicitly Identify the Conceptual Definition of Presence You Are Using |
41 |
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2.4.2 Resist the Temptation to Create New Presence Definitions and Terms |
41 |
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2.4.3 Use Presence Terminology as Precisely and Consistently as Possible |
41 |
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2.5 Conclusion |
43 |
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References |
44 |
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Chapter 3: Presence: Form, Content and Consciousness |
48 |
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3.1 Introduction |
48 |
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3.2 Formal Requirements for Presence |
51 |
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3.3 Presence and the Conscious Self |
53 |
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3.3.1 The Evolutionary Levels of Selfhood |
54 |
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3.3.2 The Three Layers of Presence |
56 |
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3.3.2.1 The First Layer: Proto Presence |
56 |
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3.3.2.2 The Second Layer: Core Presence |
57 |
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3.3.2.3 The Third Layer: Extended Presence |
57 |
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3.4 Presence and Psychotherapy |
59 |
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3.5 Presence and Absence |
61 |
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3.5.1 The Phenomenology of Presence and Absence |
61 |
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3.5.2 On the Measurement of Presence |
63 |
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3.5.2.1 Lessons from Synesthesia |
63 |
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3.5.2.2 Brain Measures and Action |
65 |
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3.5.3 Measuring Absence |
66 |
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3.6 Conclusions |
67 |
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References |
68 |
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Chapter 4: Affect, Availability and Presence |
72 |
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4.1 Introduction |
72 |
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4.2 Thinking and Feeling |
73 |
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4.3 So, to What Is This Affective Response, a Response? |
74 |
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4.4 The Primacy of Affect |
75 |
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4.5 First Impression as Intentions in Action |
75 |
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4.6 The Evaluative Power of Affect |
76 |
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4.7 Availability |
77 |
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4.8 Affordance |
78 |
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4.9 The Neuro-dynamics of Intentionality |
78 |
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4.10 The Intentional Arc |
79 |
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4.11 Discussion |
81 |
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References |
83 |
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Chapter 5: Intention, Action, Self and Other: An Evolutionary Model of Presence |
85 |
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5.1 Introduction |
86 |
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5.2 The Theoretical Background |
87 |
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5.2.1 Evolution and Presence |
87 |
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5.2.2 Embodied Cognition: Linking Action and Perception |
89 |
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5.2.3 From Cognitive to Volitional: The Activity Theory Perspective |
91 |
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5.2.4 From Volitional to Cognitive: The Dynamic Theory of Intentions |
93 |
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5.3 Our Theoretical Stance |
95 |
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5.3.1 From Intentions to Presence |
95 |
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5.3.2 The Layers of Presence |
97 |
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5.3.3 From Presence to Social Presence |
98 |
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5.3.4 The Layers of Social Presence |
100 |
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5.3.5 Intentions, Presence and Self |
101 |
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5.4 Designing Optimal Presence |
102 |
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5.5 Conclusions |
104 |
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References |
106 |
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Chapter 6: An Action-Based Approach to Presence: Foundations and Methods |
112 |
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6.1 Introduction |
112 |
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6.2 Foundations |
113 |
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6.2.1 Space: The “There” in “Being There” |
113 |
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6.2.2 Action: Presence as a Practical Achievement |
114 |
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6.2.3 Mediation: Tools and Their Specificities |
115 |
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6.3 Implications |
116 |
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6.3.1 Beyond the Separation Between Real and Digital |
117 |
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6.3.2 Beyond a Neutral, Objective Treatment of the Mediated Environment |
117 |
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6.3.3 Beyond Presence as an Intimate State |
117 |
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6.4 Studying Presence by Collecting Actions |
118 |
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6.5 Driving as Mediated Presence |
118 |
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6.6 Conclusions |
121 |
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References |
122 |
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Chapter 7: Spatial Presence Theory: State of the Art and Challenges Ahead |
126 |
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7.1 Introduction |
127 |
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7.2 Conceptualizations of Spatial Presence – A Review |
128 |
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7.2.1 What Is the Phenomenon of “Spatial Presence” About? |
128 |
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7.2.2 Draper and Colleagues: Attention as a Key Determinant of Spatial Presence |
130 |
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7.2.3 Steuer: Mapping the Sensory Stimuli Impinging on Our Senses |
131 |
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7.2.4 Slater and Colleagues: Spatial Presence as a Gestalt and Binary State |
132 |
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7.2.5 Schubert and Colleagues: Spatial Presence as Embodied Cognition |
135 |
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7.2.6 Wirth and Colleagues: Spatial Presence Resulting From a Confirmed Perceptual Hypothesis |
136 |
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7.2.7 Schubert: A new Conception of Spatial Presence – Once Again, With a Feeling |
138 |
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7.3 A Brief Conclusion and Four Challenges Ahead |
139 |
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7.3.1 Can Users Feel Spatially Present in Non-interactive Settings? |
140 |
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7.3.2 Spatial Presence: A Binary or Continuous Experience? |
140 |
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7.3.3 Is There a “Hot Route” to Spatial Presence Experiences? |
141 |
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7.3.4 Dual Systems: Is Spatial Presence Affected by Reflective Processing? |
141 |
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References |
142 |
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Part II: Telepresence Research and Design |
147 |
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Chapter 8: Ways to Measure Spatial Presence: Review and Future Directions |
148 |
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8.1 Introduction |
149 |
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8.1.1 Characteristics of Spatial Presence |
149 |
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8.1.2 Which Kind of Measures Are Needed? |
150 |
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8.1.3 Classification of Presence Measures |
151 |
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8.2 Subjective Methods |
151 |
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8.2.1 Post-test Rating Scales/Questionnaires |
152 |
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8.2.1.1 Early Efforts to Measure Presence by Questionnaires |
152 |
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SUS (Slater et al. 1994, 1995) |
152 |
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Kim and Biocca’s (1997) Questionnaire |
153 |
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Barfield et al. (1998) Presence Questionnaire |
153 |
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8.2.1.2 Multidimensional Presence Questionnaires |
154 |
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Presence Questionnaire (PQ), Witmer and Singer (1998) |
154 |
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Sas and O’Hare’s (2001) Presence Questionnaire |
155 |
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Biocca et al. (2001) |
155 |
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Igroup Presence Questionnaire (IPQ) (Schubert et al. 2001) |
156 |
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ITC Sense of Presence Inventory (ITC-SOPI) (Lessiter et al. 2001) |
156 |
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MEC-SPQ (Böcking et al. 2004 |
157 |
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TPI (The Temple Presence Inventory |
158 |
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8.2.1.3 Evaluation of the Presence Questionnaires |
158 |
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8.2.2 Continuous Subjective Presence Assessment Techniques |
159 |
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8.2.2.1 Continuous Presence Assessment by a Slider |
160 |
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8.2.2.2 Continuous Presence Assessment by a Counter |
160 |
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8.2.3 Psychophysical Measures |
161 |
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8.2.3.1 Magnitude Estimation |
161 |
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8.2.3.2 Method of Paired Comparisons |
161 |
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8.2.4 Qualitative Measures |
162 |
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8.2.4.1 Interviews |
162 |
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8.2.4.2 Continuous Verbal Reporting |
163 |
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8.2.4.3 Experience Sampling Method (ESM) |
163 |
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8.2.4.4 Repertory Grid Analysis |
163 |
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8.2.4.5 Ethnographic Techniques |
164 |
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8.2.4.6 Focus Groups |
164 |
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8.2.4.7 Evaluation |
164 |
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8.2.5 Overall Evaluation of Subjective Measures of Presence |
165 |
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8.3 Objective Methods |
165 |
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8.3.1 Behavioural Measures |
166 |
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8.3.1.1 Direct Observation of Adaptive Behaviours Evoked by Virtual Dangers |
166 |
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8.3.1.2 Postural Adjustments and Other Forms of Body Movement |
168 |
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8.3.1.3 Attention-Based Measures |
168 |
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8.3.1.4 Summary Evaluation of Behavioural Measures |
169 |
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8.3.2 Performance Measures |
170 |
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8.3.2.1 Performance on Manipulation Tasks |
170 |
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8.3.2.2 Memory for Events/Recollection |
171 |
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8.3.2.3 Other Possible Performance Measures |
171 |
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8.3.2.4 Summary Evaluation of Performance Measures |
172 |
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8.3.3 Psychophysiological Measures |
173 |
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8.3.3.1 Eye-Related Measures |
173 |
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Eye Movements |
173 |
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Pupillary Responses |
174 |
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Overall Evaluation of Eye-Based Measures |
175 |
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8.3.3.2 Brain-Related Measures |
175 |
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EEG |
176 |
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Other Brain-Related Measures |
177 |
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Summary Evaluation of Brain-Based Measures |
178 |
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8.3.3.3 Heart-Related Measures |
178 |
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Changes in Heart Rate |
178 |
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Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia |
180 |
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8.3.3.4 Other Psychophysiological Measures |
180 |
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Electrodermal Activity |
180 |
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Electromyography |
181 |
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8.3.3.5 Summary Evaluation of Psychophysiological Methods |
182 |
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8.3.4 Prospects and Limitations of Objective Measures of Presence |
183 |
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8.4 Comparing Different Methods to Measure Presence |
184 |
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8.5 Conclusions |
186 |
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References |
187 |
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Chapter 9: An Integrative Approach to Presence and Self-Motion Perception Research |
195 |
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9.1 Motivation and Background |
197 |
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9.1.1 Spatial Orientation Problems in VR |
197 |
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9.1.2 Spatial Misperception in VR |
198 |
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9.1.3 The Challenge of Self-Motion Simulation |
199 |
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9.2 Literature Overview on the Perception of Illusory Self-Motion (Vection) |
201 |
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9.2.1 Size of the Visual FOV |
203 |
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9.2.2 Foreground-Background Separation Between a Stationary Foreground and a Moving Background |
203 |
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9.2.3 Spatial Frequency of the Moving Visual Pattern |
204 |
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9.2.4 Velocity and Direction of the Visual Stimulus |
205 |
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9.2.5 Eye Movements |
206 |
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9.2.6 Non-visual Cues and Multimodal Consistency |
206 |
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9.2.7 Cognitive, Attentional, and Higher-Level Influences on Vection |
210 |
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9.3 A Selective Review on Presence |
213 |
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9.3.1 Presence and Reference Frames |
215 |
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9.3.2 Resence and Self-Motion Perception |
216 |
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9.3.3 Conclusions |
216 |
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9.4 Experiments Investigating the Relations Between Spatial Presence, Scene Consistency and Self-Motion Perception |
217 |
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9.4.1 Methods |
218 |
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9.4.2 Hypotheses |
218 |
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9.4.3 Results and Discussion |
219 |
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9.4.4 Experiment 2 – Unobtrusive Modifications of a Projection Screen Can Facilitate Both Vection and Presence |
220 |
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9.4.5 Correlations Between Presence Factors and Vection Measures |
222 |
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9.5 Discussion: A Direct Link Between Presence and Vection? |
224 |
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9.5.1 Low-Level vs. Higher-Level Influences in Experiment 1 & 2 |
224 |
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9.5.1.1 Number of Vertical High-Contrast Edges |
224 |
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9.5.1.2 Pathway (A): Increase in Perceived Depth and Perceived Self-Motion Velocity |
226 |
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9.5.1.3 Pathway (B): Perceived Foreground-Background Separation and Perceived Background Motion |
227 |
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9.5.1.4 Pathway (C): Presence and the Assumption of a Stable Reference Frame |
227 |
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9.5.2 Origin of Vection- and Presence-Enhancing Effect of Adding Marks to the Projection Screen |
228 |
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9.6 Conclusions and Conceptual Framework |
231 |
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9.7 Outlook |
234 |
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References |
234 |
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Chapter 10: Patterns of Place: An Integrated Approach for the Design and Evaluation of Real and Virtual Environments |
244 |
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10.1 Introduction |
245 |
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10.2 A Human Computer Interaction Based Approach to Sense of Presence |
246 |
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10.3 The Place Probe |
249 |
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10.4 A Pattern Based Approach to Design |
254 |
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10.4.1 Technology Patterns |
255 |
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10.4.2 Patterns of Spatial Characteristics |
256 |
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10.4.3 Patterns of Meanings and Affect |
258 |
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10.4.4 Activity Patterns |
259 |
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10.5 Conclusions |
261 |
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Appendix: The Place Probe |
262 |
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Instructions |
262 |
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Background Information |
263 |
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Description |
263 |
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Map |
263 |
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Features |
263 |
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Pictures |
263 |
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Sounds |
263 |
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Words |
264 |
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References |
266 |
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Part III: Telepresence Applications |
268 |
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Chapter 11: Collaboration in Immersive and Non-immersive Virtual Environments |
269 |
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11.1 Introduction |
270 |
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11.2 Technologies |
272 |
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11.2.1 Puppeteered Avatars |
272 |
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11.2.2 Tracked Avatars |
273 |
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11.2.3 Reconstructed Avatars |
275 |
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11.3 Impact of Avatars |
276 |
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11.3.1 Individual Response |
277 |
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11.3.2 Responses to User Avatars |
278 |
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11.4 Presence and Co-presence |
279 |
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11.4.1 Modality |
280 |
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11.4.2 Realism |
281 |
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11.4.3 Context |
282 |
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11.5 End-States |
283 |
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11.6 Challenges |
285 |
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References |
286 |
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Chapter 12: Presence-Inducing Media for Mental Health Applications |
289 |
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12.1 Introduction |
290 |
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12.2 Virtual Reality as Presence-Inducing Technology |
291 |
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12.2.1 The Link Between Presence and Therapeutic Change |
292 |
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12.2.2 The Link Between Presence and Emotions |
295 |
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12.3 Virtual Reality in Mental Health Treatments |
298 |
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12.3.1 Phobias |
305 |
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12.3.1.1 Acrophobia |
305 |
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12.3.1.2 Claustrophobia |
306 |
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12.3.1.3 Small Animal Phobia |
307 |
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12.3.1.4 Flying Phobia |
308 |
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12.3.1.5 Driving Phobia |
309 |
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12.3.1.6 Public Speaking Fear/Social Phobia |
310 |
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12.3.2 Panic Disorder and Agoraphobia. |
311 |
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12.3.3 Eating Disorders and Obesity |
312 |
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12.3.4 Post-traumatic Stress Disorder |
316 |
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12.3.5 Pain Treatment |
317 |
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12.3.6 Other Treatments |
320 |
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12.3.7 The Limitations of Virtual Reality |
321 |
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12.4 Conclusions and Future Perspectives |
322 |
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References |
325 |
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