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Preface |
5 |
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Contents |
7 |
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1 The Built Environment and Its Policies |
10 |
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Abstract |
10 |
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1.1 Buildings Throughout Time |
10 |
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1.2 Energy in Buildings: From Sufficiency to Efficiency |
12 |
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1.3 Requirements for Future Buildings |
14 |
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1.4 Sustainable Buildings |
16 |
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1.5 The Built Environment and Its Policies: the Case of the Mediterranean Basin |
22 |
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Part I Challenges and Priorities for a Sustainable Built Environment |
25 |
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2 Climatic Change in the Built Environment in Temperate Climates with Emphasis on the Mediterranean Area |
26 |
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Abstract |
26 |
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2.1 Introduction |
26 |
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2.2 The Multi-Fold Relationship Between Cities and Climate Change |
27 |
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2.3 Urbanization in Europe |
29 |
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2.4 Climate Change in Europe |
30 |
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2.5 Climate in the Mediterranean Area |
31 |
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2.6 Climate Change in the Mediterranean Area |
32 |
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2.7 Impacts of Climate Change on Cities |
35 |
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2.8 Conclusion |
39 |
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References |
39 |
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3 The Role of Buildings in Energy Systems |
44 |
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Abstract |
44 |
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3.1 Sustainability and Construction Activity |
45 |
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3.2 Energy Consumption in Buildings |
47 |
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3.2.1 Overall Energy Consumption in the Building Sector |
47 |
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3.2.2 Energy Consumption Per Fuel Type and Renewable Energy Sources (RES) |
49 |
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3.3 Means of Reducing Energy Consumption |
50 |
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3.3.1 Energy Efficiency |
50 |
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3.4 Embodied Energy of Structural Materials and Components |
53 |
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3.5 Assessment Methods |
56 |
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3.5.1 Introduction |
56 |
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3.5.2 Environmental Assessment of Structural Products and Processes |
61 |
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3.5.3 Environmental Assessment Methods for Buildings and Construction Works |
62 |
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3.5.3.1 BREEAM (BRE Environmental Assessment Method) |
63 |
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3.5.3.2 SBTOOL (Sustainable Buildings Tool) |
64 |
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3.5.3.3 Green Globes |
64 |
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3.5.3.4 LEED® (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) |
65 |
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3.5.3.5 CASBEE (Comprehensive Assessment System for Building Environmental Efficiency) |
66 |
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3.6 Discussion |
66 |
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References |
68 |
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4 Challenges and Priorities for a Sustainable Built Environment in Southern Europe—The Impact of Energy Efficiency Measures and Renewable Energies on Employment |
70 |
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Abstract |
70 |
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4.1 Introduction |
70 |
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4.2 The Built Environment—Defining the Challenges and Priorities in Southern Europe |
72 |
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4.2.1 Fighting Economic and Social Stratification Discrimination Through Energy Investment |
74 |
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4.3 Conclusions |
79 |
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References |
83 |
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5 Indicators for Buildings’ Energy Performance |
85 |
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Abstract |
85 |
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5.1 Introduction |
85 |
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5.1.1 Background |
87 |
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5.1.1.1 Buildings’ Energy Analysis |
87 |
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5.1.2 European Landscape |
88 |
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5.2 The Resulting Taxonomy |
90 |
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5.3 Decision-Making Framework |
93 |
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5.4 Findings |
94 |
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5.5 Discussion |
96 |
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References |
97 |
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6 Life Cycle Versus Carbon Footprint Analysis for Construction Materials |
100 |
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Abstract |
100 |
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6.1 Introduction |
100 |
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6.2 Methodological Approach |
102 |
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6.3 Results and Discussion |
105 |
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6.4 Conclusions |
108 |
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References |
109 |
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7 Economic Experiments Used for the Evaluation of Building Users’ Energy-Saving Behavior |
112 |
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Abstract |
112 |
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7.1 Introduction |
113 |
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7.2 Literature Review |
114 |
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7.3 Experimental Design |
116 |
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7.4 Results |
119 |
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7.5 Conclusions |
124 |
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7.6 Further Investigations |
125 |
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References |
126 |
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8 Technologies and Socio-economic Strategies to nZEB in the Building Stock of the Mediterranean Area |
127 |
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Abstract |
127 |
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8.1 Towards Nearly Zero Energy Urban Settings in the Mediterranean Climate |
128 |
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8.1.1 State of the Art and Crucial Issues in the Urban Environment of the Mediterranean Areas. A Case Study of the Athens Metropolitan Area (AMA) |
128 |
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8.1.2 Policy Background and Zero Energy Case Studies |
130 |
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8.1.3 Low Carbon Communities and Grass-Roots Initiatives in the Urban Environment |
131 |
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8.2 Towards “Nearly Zero Energy” and Socio-oriented Urban Settings in the Mediterranean Climate |
132 |
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8.3 Energy Retrofitting Scenarios of Existing Buildings to Achieve nZEBs: The Case Study of the Peristeri Workers’ Houses’ Urban Compound |
134 |
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8.3.1 Energy Performance Evaluation in the Buildings as Built |
138 |
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8.3.2 Energy Retrofitting Scenarios of Existing Buildings in the Peristeri Urban Compound |
155 |
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8.3.3 Cost-Benefit Analysis |
155 |
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8.3.4 First Conclusions on the Peristeri Urban Compound and Further Design Scenarios |
156 |
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8.3.5 Energy and Cost Benefits of Volumetric Addition in Energy Retrofitting Actions |
156 |
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8.3.6 Low Versus High Transformation Retrofitting Options Towards Near Zero Energy in Existing Buildings |
159 |
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8.4 Conclusions |
161 |
|
|
References |
164 |
|
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Part II The Built Environment |
168 |
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|
9 Households: Trends and Perspectives |
169 |
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Abstract |
169 |
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9.1 Introduction |
169 |
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|
9.2 Analysis of Data in the Crisis Period |
170 |
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9.2.1 Household Energy Consumption |
170 |
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9.2.2 Population Change |
174 |
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9.2.3 Building Stock |
175 |
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9.2.4 Greenhouse Gas Emissions |
179 |
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9.2.5 Discussion of Data |
180 |
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9.3 Housing and Living Quality |
184 |
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9.3.1 Overcrowding Rate |
184 |
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9.3.2 Severe Housing Deprivation Rate |
185 |
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9.3.3 Housing Cost Overburden Rate |
190 |
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9.4 Energy Poverty |
190 |
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9.4.1 Inability to Keep Homes Adequately Warm |
192 |
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9.4.2 People Living in Dwellings with Poor Conditions |
192 |
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9.4.3 Difficulties Paying the Bills |
197 |
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9.4.4 Population Living in Uncomfortable Dwellings |
197 |
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9.5 Conclusions |
201 |
|
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References |
203 |
|
|
10 Office BuildingsCommercial Buildings: Trends and Perspectives |
205 |
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Abstract |
205 |
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10.1 Introduction |
205 |
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10.2 The Zero Energy Buildings’ Perspectives in the Mediterranean Region |
206 |
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10.3 Office Buildings as ZEB in the Mediterranean Region |
208 |
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|
10.3.1 Office Building in Crete, Greece |
209 |
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10.3.2 Laboratory Building in Cyprus |
210 |
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|
10.4 Conclusions and Future Prospects |
216 |
|
|
References |
217 |
|
|
11 Energy Efficiency in Hospitals: Historical Development, Trends and Perspectives |
219 |
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|
Abstract |
219 |
|
|
11.1 Introduction: On the Evolution of Hospital Buildings |
219 |
|
|
11.2 On the Use of Energy in Hospitals |
221 |
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11.3 Thermal Comfort, Indoor Air Quality, and Hygiene |
226 |
|
|
11.4 Improving Energy Efficiency and Reducing Energy Costs: Energy Optimization |
227 |
|
|
11.4.1 Monitoring of Energy Efficiency |
230 |
|
|
11.4.2 Analysis of Energy Consumption |
230 |
|
|
11.4.3 Energy Optimization |
230 |
|
|
11.5 Conclusions |
233 |
|
|
References |
234 |
|
|
12 The Hotel Industry: Current Situation and Its Steps Beyond Sustainability |
236 |
|
|
Abstract |
236 |
|
|
12.1 Introduction |
236 |
|
|
12.2 An Overview of Energy Performance in Hotels |
237 |
|
|
12.2.1 Tourism in Countries with Temperate Climates |
239 |
|
|
12.2.2 Basic Figures for the Greek Sector |
239 |
|
|
12.3 Features of the Hotel Industry in Countries with Temperate Climates |
241 |
|
|
12.4 Beyond Energy: Hotels and Sustainability |
246 |
|
|
12.5 Conclusions |
247 |
|
|
References |
248 |
|
|
13 Schools: Trends and Perspectives |
252 |
|
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Abstract |
252 |
|
|
13.1 Introduction |
252 |
|
|
13.2 Methodology |
254 |
|
|
13.3 Schools’ Building Stock Data |
255 |
|
|
13.4 Pilot Schools’ Comfort and Energy Performance Investigation |
259 |
|
|
13.4.1 Indoor Environmental Conditions |
260 |
|
|
13.4.1.1 Studies Comparing Thermal Comfort and Energy Efficiency |
261 |
|
|
13.5 Field Measurements of Climatic Parameters in a Typical School Building |
263 |
|
|
13.6 Energy Simulations and Upgrade Scenarios of a Typical School |
265 |
|
|
13.7 Conclusions |
267 |
|
|
References |
268 |
|
|
Part III Building’s Design and Systems |
270 |
|
|
14 New Challenges in Covering Buildings’ Thermal Load |
271 |
|
|
Abstract |
271 |
|
|
14.1 Introduction |
271 |
|
|
14.1.1 Defining Building Energy Supply Technologies |
273 |
|
|
14.1.2 Building Energy Supply Technologies in Temperate Climates |
275 |
|
|
14.1.3 Building Energy Systems in Retrofitting |
275 |
|
|
14.2 Shifting the Paradigm |
276 |
|
|
14.2.1 The Zero Energy Building Agenda and the Regulatory Environment |
276 |
|
|
14.2.2 The Smart Decarbonized Grid Landscape and the Connected Building |
278 |
|
|
14.2.3 Thermal Comfort and Energy Supply |
279 |
|
|
14.3 Energy Technologies for Building Supply |
281 |
|
|
14.3.1 The Heat-Power Nexus (Interdependency of Electrical and Thermal Energy in the Built Environment) |
282 |
|
|
14.3.2 Emerging Building Energy Systems |
284 |
|
|
14.3.2.1 Microgeneration (or the Distributed Generation Narrative) |
284 |
|
|
14.3.2.2 Heat Pumps |
285 |
|
|
14.3.2.3 Solar Thermal Collectors |
285 |
|
|
14.3.2.4 Energy Storage (Thermal) |
286 |
|
|
14.3.3 Building Energy Management Systems |
288 |
|
|
14.4 Envisioning the Building of the Future (Is the All-Electric Building the Future?) |
289 |
|
|
References |
289 |
|
|
15 Energy Technologies for Building Supply Systems: MCHP |
291 |
|
|
Abstract |
291 |
|
|
15.1 Introduction |
291 |
|
|
15.2 Prime Mover Technologies and Market Survey |
296 |
|
|
15.2.1 Reciprocating Internal Combustion Engines (ICE) |
297 |
|
|
15.2.2 Reciprocating External Combustion Stirling Engines (SE) |
300 |
|
|
15.2.3 Fuel Cells (FC) |
302 |
|
|
15.2.4 Gas and Steam Micro-turbines (MT) |
303 |
|
|
15.2.5 Photovoltaic Thermal (PVT) Generators |
304 |
|
|
15.3 Operating Schemes |
305 |
|
|
15.4 Regulatory Framework |
310 |
|
|
15.4.1 Micro-cogeneration Testing Procedures |
311 |
|
|
15.4.2 State of the Art: Experimental Results and Simulation Tools |
312 |
|
|
15.5 ConclusionsDiscussion |
314 |
|
|
References |
315 |
|
|
16 The State of the Art for Technologies Used to Decrease Demand in Buildings: Thermal Energy Storage |
319 |
|
|
Abstract |
319 |
|
|
16.1 Introduction |
319 |
|
|
16.2 Materials Used for TES in Buildings |
320 |
|
|
16.2.1 Sensible Heat |
321 |
|
|
16.2.2 Latent Heat |
322 |
|
|
16.2.3 Thermochemical Reactions |
325 |
|
|
16.3 Passive Technologies |
326 |
|
|
16.3.1 Introduction |
326 |
|
|
16.3.2 Sensible Passive Systems |
326 |
|
|
16.3.2.1 Integration in Building Components |
326 |
|
|
16.3.3 Latent Passive Systems |
329 |
|
|
16.3.3.1 Integration in the Building |
329 |
|
|
16.3.3.2 Environmental Impact |
332 |
|
|
16.4 Active Systems |
332 |
|
|
16.4.1 Introduction |
332 |
|
|
16.4.2 Free-Cooling Systems |
332 |
|
|
16.4.3 Building Integrated Active Systems |
333 |
|
|
16.4.3.1 Integration of the TES Into the Core of the Building |
334 |
|
|
16.4.3.2 Integration of the TES in External Façades |
336 |
|
|
16.4.3.3 Integration of the TES in Suspended Ceilings and Ventilation Systems |
337 |
|
|
16.4.3.4 Integration of the TES in the PV System |
338 |
|
|
16.4.3.5 Integration of the TES in Water Tanks |
338 |
|
|
16.4.4 Use of TES in Heat Pumps |
339 |
|
|
16.5 Conclusions |
341 |
|
|
References |
342 |
|
|
17 Solar Thermal Systems |
349 |
|
|
Abstract |
349 |
|
|
17.1 Introduction |
349 |
|
|
17.1.1 Solar Energy Collectors |
350 |
|
|
17.1.1.1 Solar Water Heating Collectors |
351 |
|
|
17.1.1.2 Flat-Plate Collector |
351 |
|
|
17.1.1.3 Heat Pipe Evacuated Tube Collector |
353 |
|
|
17.1.1.4 Water-in-Glass Evacuated Tube Collector |
353 |
|
|
17.1.2 Solar Air Heating Collectors |
354 |
|
|
17.1.2.1 Unglazed Solar Air Heating Collector |
354 |
|
|
17.1.2.2 Glazed Solar Air Heating Collector |
355 |
|
|
17.1.3 Solar Water Heating Systems |
357 |
|
|
17.1.4 Forced Circulation SWHS |
359 |
|
|
17.1.5 Thermosyphon SWHS |
360 |
|
|
17.2 Solar Thermal Cooling Systems |
361 |
|
|
17.2.1 Solar Absorption Cooling System |
362 |
|
|
17.2.2 Solar Adsorption Cooling System |
364 |
|
|
17.2.3 Solar Desiccant Cooling Systems |
365 |
|
|
17.2.4 Solar Ejector Cooling System |
365 |
|
|
17.2.5 Advantages and Disadvantages |
366 |
|
|
17.2.6 Overview of Solar Cooling Systems |
366 |
|
|
17.2.7 Solar Cooling System Costs |
368 |
|
|
17.3 Solar Air Heating System |
369 |
|
|
17.3.1 Solar Absorption Heat Pump System |
370 |
|
|
17.4 Building Integrated Solar Thermal Systems |
372 |
|
|
17.4.1 Façade Integrations |
372 |
|
|
17.4.2 Roof Integrated Systems |
373 |
|
|
17.4.3 Balconies and Walls |
373 |
|
|
References |
373 |
|
|
18 Solar Energy for Building Supply |
376 |
|
|
Abstract |
376 |
|
|
18.1 Introduction |
376 |
|
|
18.2 PV Modules and Cells |
377 |
|
|
18.2.1 Electricity Production |
377 |
|
|
18.2.2 The Components |
378 |
|
|
18.2.3 Dependency of Energy Generated on System Installation |
380 |
|
|
18.2.4 Production |
381 |
|
|
18.2.5 Integration of Solar Modules in Buildings |
381 |
|
|
18.3 ?ypes of PV Cells |
381 |
|
|
18.3.1 Types of PV Cells Depending on the Semiconductor Material |
382 |
|
|
18.3.2 Types of PV Cells According to the Type of Junction |
383 |
|
|
18.3.3 Types of PV Cells According to the Method of Manufacture |
384 |
|
|
18.3.4 Types of PV Cells According to the Devices of the System that Utilizes Solar Radiation |
384 |
|
|
18.3.5 Semitransparent Modules (Crystalline Glass-Glass Module) |
385 |
|
|
18.4 I–V Curve and Losses |
386 |
|
|
18.4.1 Characteristic I–V Curve of a PV Cell—Power Curve |
386 |
|
|
18.5 Types of Building Integration |
388 |
|
|
18.6 Conclusion |
396 |
|
|
References |
396 |
|
|
19 The State of the Art for Technologies Used to Decrease Demand in Buildings: Thermal Insulation |
398 |
|
|
Abstract |
398 |
|
|
19.1 Thermal Insulation Materials |
398 |
|
|
19.2 Foamed Materials |
399 |
|
|
19.3 Fibrous Materials |
400 |
|
|
19.4 Construction Solutions |
404 |
|
|
19.4.1 Vertical Building Elements |
405 |
|
|
19.4.2 Horizontal Building Elements |
407 |
|
|
19.5 Conclusions |
413 |
|
|
Reference |
413 |
|
|
20 Cool Materials |
414 |
|
|
Abstract |
414 |
|
|
20.1 Introduction |
414 |
|
|
20.2 Construction Materials Under Solar Radiation |
416 |
|
|
20.2.1 Construction and Building Solutions for Cool Applications |
418 |
|
|
20.3 Cool Materials for Building Applications |
420 |
|
|
20.3.1 White and Light-Colored Materials |
420 |
|
|
20.3.2 Cool Colored Materials |
421 |
|
|
20.3.3 Advanced Materials |
423 |
|
|
20.4 Cool Materials for Urban Applications |
424 |
|
|
20.5 Potentialities of Cool Materials Applications |
426 |
|
|
20.5.1 Saving Energy with Cool Roofs |
426 |
|
|
20.5.2 Mitigating the Urban Temperatures with Cool Materials |
428 |
|
|
20.6 Cool Roofs Case Studies |
429 |
|
|
20.6.1 Senior Recreation Building in Rome, Italy |
429 |
|
|
20.6.2 OfficeSchool Building in Trapani, Sicily, Italy |
430 |
|
|
20.6.3 School Building in Athens, Greece |
432 |
|
|
20.6.4 School Building in Heraklion, Crete, Greece |
432 |
|
|
Bibliography |
433 |
|
|
21 Shading and Daylight Systems |
436 |
|
|
Abstract |
436 |
|
|
21.1 Introduction |
436 |
|
|
21.2 Shading |
444 |
|
|
21.3 Daylight Systems |
449 |
|
|
21.3.1 Lightshelf |
452 |
|
|
21.3.2 Blinds |
453 |
|
|
21.3.3 Daylight Transporting Systems |
459 |
|
|
21.3.4 Heliostat |
462 |
|
|
References |
464 |
|
|
22 The State of the Art for Technologies Used to Decrease Demand in Buildings: Electric Lighting |
466 |
|
|
Abstract |
466 |
|
|
22.1 Energy Consumption by Electric Lighting |
466 |
|
|
22.2 Policies and Standards |
468 |
|
|
22.3 Energy Performance Factors for Lighting Installations |
469 |
|
|
22.4 Maintenance and Life Cycle |
472 |
|
|
22.5 Comparison of Technologies |
473 |
|
|
22.5.1 Lamps |
473 |
|
|
22.5.1.1 LED Replacement Lamps |
475 |
|
|
22.5.2 Luminaires |
475 |
|
|
22.5.3 LED Luminaires |
475 |
|
|
22.5.4 OLED Luminaires |
476 |
|
|
22.6 Daylighting Utilization |
477 |
|
|
22.7 Lighting Design |
477 |
|
|
22.8 Conclusions |
480 |
|
|
Reference |
480 |
|
|
Part IV The Microclimatic Environment |
481 |
|
|
23 Tools and Strategies for Microclimatic Analysis of the Built Environment |
482 |
|
|
Abstract |
482 |
|
|
23.1 Introduction |
482 |
|
|
23.2 Köppen-Geiger Climate Classification |
483 |
|
|
23.3 Orientation Analysis |
485 |
|
|
23.4 Passive Design Strategies for Mediterranean Climate |
486 |
|
|
23.5 Passive Design Strategies for Mediterranean Climate |
488 |
|
|
23.6 Climograms—Case Study of Barcelona |
489 |
|
|
23.7 Summary of Design Strategies for Mediterranean Cities |
492 |
|
|
23.8 Passive Strategies for Winter |
494 |
|
|
23.9 Conclusion |
494 |
|
|
References |
495 |
|
|
24 Microclimatic Improvement |
496 |
|
|
Abstract |
496 |
|
|
24.1 Introduction |
497 |
|
|
24.2 Defining Microclimate |
498 |
|
|
24.2.1 Properties of Mediterranean Climate |
498 |
|
|
24.2.2 Meso-Scale Conditions |
500 |
|
|
24.2.2.1 Topography |
500 |
|
|
24.2.2.2 Wind |
500 |
|
|
24.2.2.3 Bodies of Water |
500 |
|
|
24.2.2.4 Vegetation |
500 |
|
|
24.2.2.5 Artificial Elements |
501 |
|
|
24.2.3 Main Physical Parameters on the Local Scale |
501 |
|
|
24.3 Mediterranean Settlement and Microclimate |
503 |
|
|
24.4 Strategies in Microclimatic Improvement |
506 |
|
|
24.4.1 Building as Modifier of Microclimate (North America 1910–1948) |
506 |
|
|
24.4.2 Sequences of Dampening Spaces (Andalusia 9th–14th Centuries) |
508 |
|
|
24.4.3 Collaboration Between Construction and Microclimate (Corse 2011) |
510 |
|
|
24.4.4 Social Spaces and Evapotranspiration (Castile 2004) |
512 |
|
|
24.4.5 Blurring and Dematerialization (Southern France 1961 and 2003–2007) |
513 |
|
|
24.5 Conclusions |
517 |
|
|
References |
518 |
|
|
25 Modelling and Bioclimatic Interventions in Outdoor Spaces |
520 |
|
|
Abstract |
520 |
|
|
25.1 Introduction |
520 |
|
|
25.2 The Optimum Modelling Tool |
522 |
|
|
25.3 Using Computational Fluid Dynamics in the Bioclimatic Design of Open Spaces in Two Greek Cities |
523 |
|
|
25.3.1 Bioclimatic Thermal Problem |
523 |
|
|
25.3.2 Bioclimatic Interventions |
524 |
|
|
25.3.3 Model Verification |
524 |
|
|
25.3.4 Comparison of the Mean Maximum Air Temperature |
527 |
|
|
25.3.5 Comparison of the Mean Surface Temperatures |
529 |
|
|
25.4 Urban Microclimatic Improvement Effects on Building Blocks’ Energy Consumption by the Use of Energy Simulation |
531 |
|
|
25.5 The Optimum Modeling Scheme in Bioclimatic Design |
533 |
|
|
25.6 Conclusions |
534 |
|
|
References |
535 |
|
|
Index |
538 |
|