Agricultures et d00E9fis du monde	5
	Foreword	6
	Preface	8
	Acknowledgments	10
	Contents	11
	Contributors	14
	Research Unit Acronyms	19
	List of Boxes	21
	1 How Climate Change Reshuffles the Cards for Agriculture	22
	Abstract	22
	1.1 Background	22
	1.2 Main Thrusts of the Latest IPCC Report and the Agricultural Implications	23
	1.2.1 Adaptation and Agriculture	26
	1.2.2 Mitigation and Agriculture	26
	1.2.3 The Bioenergy Issue	28
	1.2.4 Situation of Developing Countries	29
	1.3 What Climate-Smart Agriculture Proposes	30
	1.3.1 Synergy Between Adaptation and Mitigation	30
	1.3.2 Efficiency, Resilience and Landscape Scale	33
	1.4 Designing and Implementing Appropriate Public Policies	35
	References	36
	Part ICoping with Climate Change	38
	2 Hazards, Vulnerability and Risk	39
	Abstract	39
	2.1 Brief Review of Cyndinics---The Science of Risk	39
	2.2 How Does This Apply to Climate Change?	42
	2.3 What About Vulnerability?	44
	2.3.1 What Are the Current and Future Adaptation Margins?	44
	2.3.2 To Avoid Addressing the Issues Inefficiently	45
	2.4 What Relevance for Rural Areas?	47
	References	48
	3 Rice Adaptation Strategies in Response to Heat Stress at Flowering	50
	Abstract	50
	3.1 Background	51
	3.2 Sterility Risks---Changes in the Climate and Cropping Practices	51
	3.3 Adaptation Through Escape---Anthesis Early in the Day	52
	3.4 Adaptation Through Avoidance---Panicle Cooling Through Transpiration	54
	3.5 Adaptation Through Tolerance---Genes that Maintain Fertility Despite Heat	58
	3.6 A Yield Prediction Tool	59
	3.7 Conclusion	60
	References	61
	4 Adaptation to Salinity	63
	Abstract	63
	4.1 Background	63
	4.2 Tilapia Adaptation to Salinity	64
	4.2.1 Osmoregulation of Fish in Saltwater Environments	64
	4.2.2 Selection of a Saltwater-Adapted Tilapia Strain	66
	4.2.3 Future Research Opportunities	66
	4.3 Salinity and Rice Growing	67
	4.3.1 Rice x Salinity Interaction---Adaptation Mechanisms	68
	4.3.2 Genetic Basis of Salinity Tolerance in Rice	69
	4.3.3 Breeding Salt-Tolerant Rice	71
	4.4 Citrus Adaptation to Salinity	72
	4.4.1 Citrus Propagation Strategies	72
	4.4.2 Citrus x Salinity Interactions---Adaptation Mechanisms	73
	4.4.3 Rootstock, Diversity and Salt Tolerance	73
	4.4.4 Polyploidy and Adaptation to Salt Stress	74
	4.4.5 Breeding Salt-Tolerant Varieties	75
	4.5 Conclusion	75
	References	75
	5 Enhanced Drought Adaptation in African Savanna Crops	77
	Abstract	77
	5.1 Climate Change and Plant Drought Adaptation	77
	5.1.1 Drought Diversity	77
	5.1.2 Plant Adaptation Mechanisms and Genetic Improvement	78
	5.1.3 Towards the Identification of Adaptation Traits and Selection	79
	5.2 The Example of Cotton	80
	5.2.1 Context	80
	5.2.2 Questions and Avenues of Research at CIRAD and Worldwide	80
	5.2.2.1 Wide Genetic Resource Diversity in the Gossypium Genus---The Wild G. Hirsutum Pool	80
	5.2.2.2 Exploitation and Effective Use of Genetic Diversity in Global Cultivated Cotton Germplasm	81
	5.2.2.3 Understanding the Response Mechanisms	81
	5.2.2.4 Genotype x Environment Interactions	83
	5.2.2.5 What Genomics and Biotechnology Contributions?	85
	5.3 The Example of Groundnut	85
	5.3.1 Context	85
	5.3.2 Questions and Avenues of Research at CIRAD and Worldwide	86
	5.3.2.1 Towards an Integrated Selection Strategy for Groundnut Drought Adaptation	86
	5.3.2.2 Contribution of Interspecific Hybridization and Highly Self-Limiting Populations	86
	5.4 Conclusion and Outlook	88
	References	89
	6 Tropical Crop Pests and Diseases in a Climate Change Setting---A Few Examples	90
	Abstract	90
	6.1 Background	91
	6.2 Impact on the Epidemiology of Coffee and Cocoa Diseases	91
	6.2.1 Coffee Rust	91
	6.2.2 Cacao Swollen Shoot Virus---Climate Change, Deforestation or Both?	92
	6.3 Lepidopteran Stem-Borers and Other Insect Pests of Sugarcane---Biological Control Disturbances, Expansion of Infested Areas	93
	6.4 Changes in the Helicoverpa Armigera Population Dynamics in Cotton Fields	95
	6.5 Coffee Berry Borer---A Spreading Pest	95
	6.6 How to Cope with Climate Change and Provide New Pest Control Solutions	97
	References	98
	7 Healthy Tropical Plants to Mitigate the Impact of Climate Change---As Exemplified in Coffee	100
	Abstract	100
	7.1 Coffee---A Model for Studying Climate Constraints	101
	7.2 Enhancing Plant Health---A Revisited Concept	101
	7.3 The Specificity of Perennial Crops---Specific Field Research and Integrative Approaches	102
	7.4 Rust, Nematodes and Drought---Three Major Targets	105
	7.4.1 Coffee Rust Tolerance	105
	7.4.2 Impact of Climate Change on Coffee/Nematode Interactions	108
	7.4.3 Towards the Identification of Genes Responsible for Drought Tolerance in Coffee Trees	109
	7.4.3.1 Genetic Diversity of Coffee Trees and Mechanisms Involved in Drought Tolerance	109
	7.4.3.2 Identification of Candidate Genes	110
	7.5 Outlook	110
	References	111
	8 Climate Change and Vector-Borne Diseases	113
	Abstract	113
	8.1 Background	114
	8.2 Climate Impact on the Distribution of Disease Cycle Components	115
	8.3 Climate Impact on Disease Transmission Dynamics	117
	8.4 Climate and Major Vector-Borne Disease Outbreaks	119
	8.5 Modelling to Understand, Predict and Control	120
	8.6 Limits and Conclusion	122
	References	123
	9 Relationships Between Tropical Annual Cropping Systems and Climate Change	125
	Abstract	125
	9.1 Background	126
	9.2 Sensitivity of Annual Crops to Climate Variables	126
	9.2.1 Effects of Increased Temperature	126
	9.2.2 Effects of Rainfall Variations	127
	9.2.3 Effects of Increased Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide Concentrations	128
	9.2.4 Effects of Changes in Radiation	128
	9.2.5 Effects of Wind	128
	9.2.6 Interactions Between Effects	129
	9.3 Mitigating the Causes of Climate Change	130
	9.3.1 Limiting Input Consumption	130
	9.3.2 Increasing Carbon Sequestration	131
	9.3.3 Limiting Methane Emissions	131
	9.4 Adaptation to Climate Change	132
	9.4.1 Forecasting the Effects	132
	9.4.2 Adaptation of Cropping Systems	133
	9.5 Conservation Agriculture	134
	9.5.1 Conservation Agriculture---A Carbon Sequestration Solution?	135
	9.6 Agroforestry	137
	9.7 Risk Insurance	137
	9.8 Conclusion and Outlook	138
	References	139
	Part IISeeking Novel Practices	141
	10 Livestock Farming Constraints in Developing Countries---From Adaptation to Mitigation in Ruminant Production Systems	142
	Abstract	142
	10.1 Background	143
	10.2 Producing References on Livestock Farming Systems in Developing Countries	144
	10.3 Potential Greenhouse Gas Emission Mitigation Pathways	145
	10.3.1 Improving Resource Use Efficiency and Livestock Productivity	145
	10.3.2 Carbon Storage in Rangelands	148
	10.4 Impact of Climate Change on Livestock Farming in Developing Countries	149
	10.4.1 Thermal and Water Stress	149
	10.4.2 Quantity and Quality of Forage Resources	150
	10.4.3 Land Availability	150
	10.5 Livestock Farming Adaptation Capacities	151
	10.6 Conclusion	153
	References	154
	11 Climate-Smart Farms? Case Studies in Burkina Faso and Colombia	157
	Abstract	157
	11.1 Background	158
	11.2 Framework for the Analysis of Farmers' Strategies	159
	11.3 Materials and Methods	159
	11.3.1 Case Study in Colombia	159
	11.3.2 Case Study in Burkina Faso	160
	11.4 Results	161
	11.4.1 Diversity of Adaptation Mechanisms	161
	11.4.2 In Colombia---Information Required to Cope with Climate Change	162
	11.4.3 In Burkina Faso---Compost and Climate-Smart Farms	164
	11.5 Discussion	165
	11.5.1 Diversity of Adaptation Mechanisms Used by Farmers	165
	11.5.2 Lessons for the Co-design of Climate-Smart Farms	166
	References	167
	12 Joint Management of Water Resources in Response to Climate Change Disruptions	169
	Abstract	169
	12.1 Water Cycle and Climate Change---The Issues	169
	12.2 Characterizing Change	171
	12.3 Proposing Technical Solutions	174
	12.4 Adapting Governance to Cope with Change	175
	12.5 Other Studies	176
	12.6 Conclusion	177
	References	177
	13 Agricultural Organic Waste Recycling to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions	180
	Abstract	180
	13.1 Background	181
	13.2 Waste Recycling Pathways of Climatic Interest	182
	13.2.1 Pathways Studied at the Farm Level	182
	13.2.2 Pathways Studied at the Farmers' Association Level	184
	13.2.3 Pathways Studied at the Territorial Level	185
	13.2.4 Implemented Organic Waste Recycling Strategies	186
	13.3 Production of Knowledge on Greenhouse Gas Emissions During Recycling	188
	13.3.1 Estimation and Modelling of Emissions During Processing and Storage	189
	13.3.2 Estimation and Measurement of Emissions After Field Applications	190
	13.4 Research Outlook	191
	References	193
	14 Will Tropical Rainforests Survive Climate Change?	195
	Abstract	195
	14.1 Background	195
	14.2 From a Turbulent Climate History to Current Global Change	196
	14.3 From Today's Climate to Tomorrow's Projections	197
	14.4 How Can the Vulnerability of Forest Species to Water Stress Be Assessed?	199
	14.5 Adapting Production and Management Strategies	200
	14.6 Outlook	202
	References	206
	15 Adaptation and Mitigation in Tropical Tree Plantations	209
	Abstract	209
	15.1 Issues	210
	15.2 Main Results and Recent Trends	211
	15.2.1 Climate Change Mitigation Role of Tropical Tree Plantations	211
	15.2.2 Development of Genetic Improvement to Promote Adaptation to Climate Change	213
	15.2.2.1 Taking Ecophysiology into Account in Breeding Programmes	213
	15.2.2.2 A Few Recent Studies	214
	15.2.3 Changes in Cropping Practices to Promote Adaptation to Climate Change	216
	15.2.4 Consequences of Global Pathogen Dissemination	218
	15.3 Conclusion and Outlook	218
	15.3.1 Enhance Multidisciplinary Research	218
	15.3.2 Developing Multispecies Plantations	219
	15.3.3 Analysing the Adaptation Capacities of Village Plantations	219
	References	219
	16 Coffee and Cocoa Production in Agroforestry---A Climate-Smart Agriculture Model	221
	Abstract	221
	16.1 Background	222
	16.2 Impact of Climate Change on Coffee and Cocoa Producing Regions	222
	16.3 Mitigation	224
	16.3.1 Cocoa Agroforestry in Cameroon	225
	16.3.2 Coffee Agroforestry in India	226
	16.3.3 Coffee Agroforestry in Latin America	227
	16.3.4 Example of the Coffee Agroforestry Impact on Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Costa Rica	228
	16.4 Adaptation	229
	16.4.1 Impacts of Agroforestry Practices on the Microclimate, Water Availability, Production and Quality	229
	16.4.1.1 Microclimate and Water	229
	16.4.1.2 Production and Quality	230
	16.4.2 Effects of Agroforestry Practices on Household Income and Diversification	231
	16.4.2.1 Example of Pepper and Wood Production in Robusta Coffee Agroforestry Plantations in India	231
	16.4.2.2 Example of Timber Production in Coffee Agroforestry Plantations in Costa Rica	231
	16.4.2.3 Examples of Cocoa Agroforestry Plantations in Cameroon	232
	16.4.2.4 Example of Cocoa Agroforestry in Central America	232
	16.5 Recommendations for Research and Agroforestry Practices	233
	16.6 Policy Recommendations	234
	References	235
	Part IIIStimulating Change	237
	17 Impact of Climate Change on Food Consumption and Nutrition	238
	Abstract	238
	17.1 Background	238
	17.2 Climate Change and Diet-Related Non Communicable Diseases: Same Determinants	239
	17.2.1 Meat Consumption and Climate Change	242
	17.2.2 Are Vegetarian Diets Part of the Solution?	243
	17.3 Effects of Climate Change on Food and Nutrition	243
	17.3.1 Potential Impact of Climate Change on Undernutrition	243
	17.3.2 Climate Change Impacts in Communities Dependent on Agriculture	244
	17.4 Future Research Opportunities	245
	17.4.1 Broad Multidisciplinary Approaches	245
	17.4.2 Research that Takes an Ecological Approach to Public Health	246
	17.4.3 Prioritizing Research on the Role of Women	246
	17.4.4 Impact of Rural to Urban Migration on the Sustainability of Urban Diets	247
	17.4.5 Research on the Organization of Food Systems in Response to Climate Change	247
	17.4.6 Monitoring and Surveillance Systems Are Crucial	247
	References	248
	18 The One Health Concept to Dovetail Health and Climate Change Policies	250
	Abstract	250
	18.1 Background	251
	18.2 General Framework: The `One Health' Concept	254
	18.3 Prioritization of Diseases and Risk Assessment	256
	18.4 Risk Reduction: Enhance and Adapt Health Systems	258
	18.5 Conclusion	260
	References	260
	19 Impact of Climate Change on Ecosystem Services	262
	Abstract	262
	19.1 The Ecosystem Services Concept	263
	19.2 Value of Ecosystem Services in Reducing Socioecosystem Vulnerability	266
	19.3 Impacts of Climate Change on Ecosystem Services	267
	19.4 Preservation of Ecological Functions in the Climate Change Context	269
	19.5 Conclusion and Outlook	270
	References	271
	20 Life Cycle Assessment to Understand Agriculture-Climate Change Linkages	273
	Abstract	273
	20.1 A Single International Standard to Quantify Agricultural Greenhouse Gases	274
	20.2 A Simple Conceptual and Methodological Framework for an Array of Scientific Challenges	275
	20.3 What Does Life Cycle Assessment Tell Us About the Impact of Crops on Climate Change?	277
	20.4 What Does Life Cycle Assessment not Tell Us?	281
	References	284
	21 Payment for Environmental Services in Climate Change Policies	286
	Abstract	286
	21.1 Background	286
	21.2 Economic Theory and Payment for Environmental Services	288
	21.3 A Variety of Arrangements	289
	21.3.1 Inclusion in Government Policies and Projects	290
	21.3.2 Involvement in Market-Oriented Institutional Arrangements	291
	21.4 A Contribution to Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation Policies	294
	21.5 Conclusion	295
	References	296
	22 Tackling the Climate Change Challenge: What Roles for Certification and Ecolabels?	298
	Abstract	298
	22.1 Background	298
	22.2 Mitigation, Adaptation and Voluntary Sustainability Standards	300
	22.3 How Useful are Voluntary Sustainability Standards in the Context of Climate Change?	304
	22.3.1 Ecolabels, Certification and Information Asymmetry	304
	22.3.2 Standards as Market Instruments: Can Production Activity Externalities Be Internalized Through Labelling?	305
	22.3.3 Non-market Aspects of Standards	306
	22.4 Conclusion and Outlook	307
	Acknowledgements	307
	References	308
	23 Climate Policy Assessment on Global and National Scales	309
	Abstract	309
	23.1 From Climate Policy to Integration of Climate Issues into `Non-climate' Policies	309
	23.2 Assessing the Value of Climate Policies: The `Cost-Benefit' Approach	312
	23.3 Assessing Climate Policy Effectiveness: The `Cost-Effectiveness' Approach	313
	23.4 Evaluation of Co-benefits and Adverse Side-Effects	316
	23.5 Outlook	317
	References	318
	Part IVLooking Ahead	319
	24 What About Climate-Smart Agriculture?	320
	Abstract	320
	24.1 Background	320
	24.2 What Does the Climate-Smart Agriculture Concept Contribute?	321
	24.3 More Work Needed on Certain Important Issues	324
	24.4 Public Policies Are Indispensable	327
	24.5 Public Aid for Development Can Play a Decisive Role	328
	References	331
	25 Climate-Smart Agriculture and International Climate Change Negotiation Forums	332
	Abstract	332
	25.1 Climate-Smart Agriculture, A Proposal from the Agricultural Community	333
	25.1.1 Agriculture: Central to Climate Talks but Too Politically Charged	333
	25.1.2 Climate-Smart Agriculture: Triple Win or Necessary Policy Tradeoffs?	336
	25.2 Clarifying the Political Agenda Underpinning the Inevitable Arbitrations	338
	25.3 Fostering a Policy Dialogue on National Transformation Pathways	339
	25.4 Outlook for Research	340
	References	342
	26 New Research Perspectives to Address Climate Challenges Facing Agriculture Worldwide	344
	Abstract	344
	26.1 Context	345
	26.2 Avoid Separating Adaptation and Mitigation	346
	26.3 Innovate by Generating Knowledge and Facilitating Learning	347
	26.4 Devise New Climate-Smart and Resilient Options and Create an Environment Conducive to Change	350
	26.5 Conclusion	353
	References	354