Front Cover	1
	Phasor Measurement Units and Wide Area Monitoring Systems: From the Sensors to the System	4
	Copyright	5
	Contents	6
	Contributors	10
	Acknowledgment	12
	Chapter 1: Introduction	14
	1.1. Motivation for the Work	14
	1.2. What is a PMU?	15
	1.3. A Short History of the PMU	17
	1.4. Structure of the Book	18
	References	21
	Chapter 2: Basic Concepts and Definitions: Synchrophasors, Frequency, and ROCOF	22
	2.1. Basic Definitions of Synchrophasor, Frequency, and ROCOF	22
	2.2. Steady-State and Dynamic Conditions in Power Systems	25
	2.3. Importance of the Model: Classical Phasor Versus Dynamic Phasor	28
	2.4. Basic Definitions of Accuracy Indexes	31
	References	32
	Chapter 3: Algorithms for Synchrophasors, Frequency, and ROCOF	34
	3.1. Methods to Calculate Synchrophasors Based on a Steady-State Model	36
	3.1.1. Methods Based on DFT	37
	3.1.2. Methods Based on Direct Model Matching	42
	3.1.3. Methods Based on Demodulation and Filtering	43
	3.2. Methods Based on a Dynamic Signal Model	46
	3.2.1. Methods Based on Discrete Fourier Transform	48
	3.2.2. Methods Based on Time Domain Model Matching	50
	3.2.3. Other Estimation Methods	55
	3.3. Evaluation of Frequency and ROCOF	56
	3.4. Dynamic Behavior of Phasor Measurement Algorithms	58
	References	62
	Chapter 4: Sensors for PMUs	66
	4.1. International Standards for Instrument Transformers	66
	4.2. Accuracy of Instrument Transformers	67
	4.3. Instrument Transformers Technologies	68
	4.3.1. Voltage Dividers	68
	4.3.1.1. Resistive Dividers	70
	4.3.1.2. Capacitive Dividers	70
	4.3.2. Rogowski Coils	72
	4.4. Transducer Impact on PMU Accuracy	74
	Chapter 5: Hardware for PMU and PMU Integration	76
	5.1. Introduction	76
	5.2. PMU Architecture	78
	5.3. Data Acquisition System	81
	5.4. Synchronization Sources	85
	5.5. Communication and Data Collector	92
	5.6. Distributed PMU	97
	References	98
	Chapter 6: International Standards for PMU and Tests for Compliance	100
	6.1. The Synchrophasor Standard	100
	6.1.1. IEEE 1344-1995	100
	6.1.2. IEEE 37.118(2005)	103
	6.1.3. IEEE C37.118.1(2011) and IEEE C37.118.2(2011)	105
	6.1.4. IEC IEEE 60255-118-1	106
	6.2. Synchrophasors and IEC 61850	107
	6.2.1. Introduction to IEC 61850 Standard	107
	6.2.2. Standard Communication Services and Bus Architecture	109
	6.2.3. Comparison of IEC 61850 Communication Services and C37.118	111
	6.2.4. IEC TR 61850-90-5 Guidelines for Reporting Synchrophasors	112
	6.2.4.1. IEC 61850 Object Model for WAMPAC Applications Using Synchrophasors	113
	Model of System Hierarchy	113
	Model of PMU	114
	Model of PDCs—Substation PDC (SPDC) Model	115
	Model of PDCs—Regional or System-Level PDC Model	115
	6.2.4.2. Modes of Synchrophasor Communication	116
	6.2.4.3. Security Model	117
	6.2.4.4. Synchrophasor Profile Mapping	117
	6.2.4.5. Mapping of C37.118 Frames to IEC 61850 Services	120
	6.2.4.6. Data Model Extensions Prescribed by IEC TR 61850-90-5	121
	6.3. Test for Compliance: Examples	121
	6.3.1. Examples of PMU Testing Results	122
	6.3.2. Conclusion and Commentary on Future PMU Future Standards and Interoperability	131
	References	132
	Chapter 7: State Estimation and PMUs	136
	7.1. Introduction	137
	7.2. Formulation of the SE Problem	140
	7.3. SE Measurement Model	140
	7.3.1. Weighted Least Squares Method	141
	7.3.2. Equality-Constrained WLS	143
	7.3.3. Augmented Matrix WLS	144
	7.3.4. Least Absolute Value (LAV) Method	145
	7.3.5. Other Methods	146
	7.3.5.1. Fuzzy Logic Based SE Algorithms	146
	7.3.5.2. Probabilistic SE Methods	146
	7.3.5.3. Artificial Neural Network Based SE	146
	7.3.6. SE Requirements	146
	7.3.6.1. Accuracy of the Estimation	147
	7.3.6.2. Time Frame	149
	7.3.6.3. Robustness	150
	7.4. SE Classification	150
	7.4.1. Transmission vs. Distribution Systems	151
	7.4.2. Choice of the State Vector	152
	7.4.3. Single-Phase vs. Three-Phase Model	152
	7.4.4. Centralized vs. Decentralized Architecture	153
	7.4.5. Static vs. Dynamic Estimators	154
	7.5. Role and Impact of PMU in SE	155
	7.5.1. Availability of Phasor Measurements	156
	7.5.2. Synchronization With Respect to the UTC	157
	7.5.3. High Reporting Rate	158
	7.5.4. Compliance With the Measurement of Dynamic Signals	158
	7.5.5. High Accuracy	158
	7.6. PMU Based Transmission System SE	159
	7.7. PMU Based Distribution System SE	163
	7.8. Optimal PMU Placement	170
	7.9. SE Applications	175
	7.9.1. Security Assessment	175
	7.9.2. Automation	176
	7.9.3. Provision of Data for Forecasters or Pseudo-Measurements	177
	7.9.4. Power Quality Assessment	177
	7.10. Automation Architecture With Integrated PMU Measurements for SE	177
	7.10.1. Transmission/Distribution	185
	7.10.2. Centralized/Decentralized	187
	7.10.3. Static/Dynamic	187
	7.10.4. Single Phase/Three Phase	187
	References	187
	Chapter 8: Wide Area Measurement Systems: Applications	190
	8.1. Introduction	191
	8.2. Voltage-Stability Assessment Based on the Thevenin Approach and Synchrophasor Measurements	191
	8.2.1. Brief Introduction to the Thevenin Approach	191
	8.2.2. Introduction for the Test Case and Setup	192
	8.2.3. Discussion on the Test Results	193
	8.2.3.1. Voltage Collapse Without Consideration of Measurement Uncertainty	195
	8.2.3.2. Impact of the Measurement Uncertainty in Magnitude and in Phase-Angle Respectively on the Voltage-Stability Asse ...	196
	8.2.3.3. Conclusion Obtained From This Application and Its Test Results	199
	8.3. Voltage-Stability Assessment Based on the Modal Analysis and Synchrophasor Measurements	199
	8.3.1. Global Voltage-Stability Detection by Means of Modal Analysis	200
	8.3.1.1. Determination of the Maximal Power Generation Ability Pmax	200
	8.3.1.2. Determination of the Current Power Generation P0	201
	8.3.1.3. Simulation Modeling and Establishment of Test Platform	202
	8.3.1.4. Modeling of Uncertainty in Synchrophasor Measurements	202
	8.3.2. Test Results and Discussion	204
	8.3.2.1. Preparation for the Tests	204
	8.3.2.2. Tests for the Impact of Synchrophasor Uncertainty on the Voltage-Stability Determination	205
	8.3.2.3. Tests for the Impact of Synchrophasor Uncertainty on the Calculation of LMI	206
	8.3.2.4. Conclusions Based on This Application	207
	8.4. Adaptive Load Shedding Taking Advantage of the Synchrophasor Measurements	208
	8.4.1. Short Introduction About the Combined UFLS and UVLS	208
	8.4.2. Test Setups and Discussions on the Test Results	209
	8.4.2.1. Overall Configuration of Experimentation Platform	209
	8.4.2.2. Model of Power System	210
	8.4.2.3. Modeling for Communication Network	212
	8.4.2.4. Test Results of Load Shedding in an Ideal Communication Condition	212
	8.4.2.5. Test Results of Load Shedding in a Nonideal Communication Condition	214
	8.4.3. Conclusions on Load Shedding	217
	8.5. Estimation of Grid Parameters	218
	8.5.1. Introduction	218
	8.5.2. Estimation Framework	219
	8.5.3. Single-Circuit Transmission Line Parameter Estimation	219
	8.5.3.1. Optimal Parameter Estimation	223
	8.5.4. Grid Impedance Estimation	224
	8.6. Software Platform for Real-Time Monitoring Applications	226
	8.6.1. Structure of the Software Platform	227
	8.6.2. Measurement Interfacing Layer for Synchrophasors—OpenPDC	229
	8.6.2.1. Introduction to OpenPDC	229
	8.6.2.2. OpenPDC Architecture	230
	8.6.2.3. OpenPDC Configuration for Real-Time Monitoring Systems	232
	8.6.3. Measurement Storage Layer	233
	8.6.4. Application Layer	235
	8.7. Implementation of a Real-time Monitoring Platform	236
	8.7.1. Real-Time Monitoring Platform	236
	8.7.2. Real-Time Power System Simulation	237
	8.7.2.1. Emulation of Transducers	237
	8.7.2.2. Synchrophasor Measurement Systems	237
	8.7.2.3. Software Platform for Monitoring Application	238
	8.8. Monitoring Application—Distributed System State Estimation	238
	8.8.1. Simulation Scenario	241
	8.8.2. Simulation Results	242
	References	245
	Chapter 9: Real Life Examples of Wide Area Measurement Systems	248
	9.1. Introduction	248
	9.2. Structure of WAMS Integrated in Control and Management Systems	250
	9.3. Managing Oscillations in Power Systems	253
	9.3.1. Extracting Oscillatory Stability Parameters from Measurements	255
	9.3.2. Identifying Sources of Oscillation	258
	9.3.3. Example of Operational Constraints Based on Oscillations in Australia	260
	9.3.4. PSS Tuning	262
	9.3.5. Wide Area Damping Control	271
	9.4. Managing Disturbances	272
	9.4.1. Monitoring and Situational Awareness	272
	9.4.2. Postevent Analysis	276
	9.5. Constraint Relief in Transmission and Distribution Systems	276
	9.5.1. Use of Angles in Stability Constraint Definitions	277
	9.5.2. Controlling with Wide Area Signals	281
	9.6. Wide Area Control for System Defense	281
	9.6.1. Event- and Response-Driven Control	281
	9.6.2. Frequency and Angle Stability Control	282
	9.7. Conclusions	286
	References	288
	Author Index	290
	Subject Index	294
	Back Cover	300