|
Preface |
6 |
|
|
Contents |
7 |
|
|
About the Authors |
12 |
|
|
Acronyms |
14 |
|
|
1 Innovations in Remote Sensing of Forests |
19 |
|
|
Abstract |
19 |
|
|
1.1 Introduction |
19 |
|
|
1.2 Chapters Including in the Book |
21 |
|
|
1.3 Conclusions |
30 |
|
|
References |
30 |
|
|
Airborne LiDAR and Optical Measurements of Forest |
34 |
|
|
2 Overview of LiDAR Technologies and Equipment for Land Cover Scanning |
35 |
|
|
Abstract |
35 |
|
|
2.1 Introduction |
35 |
|
|
2.2 Development of LiDAR Technology |
37 |
|
|
2.3 Overview of Airborne Laser Scanning |
40 |
|
|
2.3.1 Physical Principles of Airborne Laser Scanning |
40 |
|
|
2.3.2 Errors of LiDAR Systems |
44 |
|
|
2.3.3 Conventional LiDAR Calibration Methods |
46 |
|
|
2.3.4 Alternative LiDAR Calibration Methods |
48 |
|
|
2.3.5 Equipment for Airborne Laser Scanning |
49 |
|
|
2.4 Overview of UAV Laser Scanning |
58 |
|
|
2.4.1 Particular Qualities of UAV Laser Scanning |
58 |
|
|
2.4.2 Equipment for UAV Laser Scanning |
59 |
|
|
2.5 Overview of Terrestrial Laser Scanning |
63 |
|
|
2.5.1 Particular Qualities of Terrestrial Laser Scanning |
63 |
|
|
2.5.2 Equipment for Terrestrial Laser Scanning |
64 |
|
|
2.5.3 Particular Qualities of Mobile Laser Scanning |
71 |
|
|
2.5.4 Equipment for Mobile Laser Scanning |
71 |
|
|
2.6 Comparison of Remote Sensing Techniques for Forest Inventory |
77 |
|
|
2.7 Conclusions |
78 |
|
|
References |
79 |
|
|
3 Software Tools for Terrain and Forest Modelling |
85 |
|
|
Abstract |
85 |
|
|
3.1 Introduction |
85 |
|
|
3.2 Survey of Software Tools for Terrain Modelling |
86 |
|
|
3.2.1 Software Tool “Terrasolid” |
86 |
|
|
3.2.2 Cloud Platform “ArcGIS” |
92 |
|
|
3.2.3 Software Tool “Bionatics” |
96 |
|
|
3.2.4 Software Tool “Terragen” |
99 |
|
|
3.2.5 Software Tool “3DNature” |
100 |
|
|
3.2.6 Software Tool “GRASS” |
101 |
|
|
3.2.7 Software Tool “Object Raku Technology” |
105 |
|
|
3.3 Survey of Software Tools for Vegetation Modelling |
106 |
|
|
3.3.1 Software Tool “Xfog” |
106 |
|
|
3.3.2 Software Tool “SpeedTree” |
108 |
|
|
3.3.3 Software Tool “Onyx Computing” |
110 |
|
|
3.3.4 Software Tool “Marlin Studios” |
115 |
|
|
3.3.5 Software Tool “E-on Software” |
115 |
|
|
3.3.6 Additional Software Tools |
117 |
|
|
3.4 Conclusions |
124 |
|
|
References |
124 |
|
|
4 Data Fusion for Evaluation of Woodland Parameters |
126 |
|
|
Abstract |
126 |
|
|
4.1 Introduction |
126 |
|
|
4.2 Related Work |
128 |
|
|
4.3 Generalized Flowchart for Data Fusion of Airborne Laser Scanning, Imaging Spectroscopy, and Imaging Photography |
135 |
|
|
4.4 Representation of Airborne LiDAR and Digital Photography Data |
138 |
|
|
4.5 Method for Crown and Trunk Measurements |
141 |
|
|
4.5.1 Shearlet Transform |
143 |
|
|
4.5.2 Generic, Higher Order, and Probabilistic Active Contour Models |
144 |
|
|
4.5.3 Crown Measurements |
146 |
|
|
4.6 Experimental Results |
147 |
|
|
4.7 Conclusions |
148 |
|
|
References |
148 |
|
|
Individual Tree Modelling |
153 |
|
|
5 Tree Modelling in Virtual Reality Environment |
154 |
|
|
Abstract |
154 |
|
|
5.1 Introduction |
154 |
|
|
5.2 Related Work |
155 |
|
|
5.3 Fundamentals of L-Systems |
164 |
|
|
5.3.1 Overview of L-Systems |
165 |
|
|
5.3.2 Overview of Parametric L-Systems |
167 |
|
|
5.3.3 Skeleton Tree-like Structures Based on L-Systems |
171 |
|
|
5.4 Procedural Modelling of Broad-Leaved Trees and Shrubs |
173 |
|
|
5.4.1 Procedural Broad-Leaved Trees Modelling Based on L-Systems |
175 |
|
|
5.4.2 Realistic Image-Based Procedural Modelling of Broad-Leaved Trees |
177 |
|
|
5.5 Procedural Modelling of Coniferous Trees |
180 |
|
|
5.6 Modelling Results |
182 |
|
|
5.7 Conclusions |
189 |
|
|
References |
189 |
|
|
6 Realistic Tree Modelling |
193 |
|
|
Abstract |
193 |
|
|
6.1 Introduction |
193 |
|
|
6.2 Related Work |
194 |
|
|
6.3 Voxel Modelling of Vegetation |
196 |
|
|
6.3.1 Voxelization |
196 |
|
|
6.3.2 2D Analysis in Horizontal Cuts |
197 |
|
|
6.3.3 3D Reconstruction |
198 |
|
|
6.4 Improvement of Tree Models by Realistic Data |
198 |
|
|
6.4.1 Space Colonization Algorithm |
199 |
|
|
6.4.2 Graph-Based Modelling |
203 |
|
|
6.4.3 Self-organizing Tree Modelling |
204 |
|
|
6.4.4 Inverse Procedural Modelling |
206 |
|
|
6.5 Experimental Results |
209 |
|
|
6.6 Conclusions |
212 |
|
|
References |
213 |
|
|
Landscape Scene Modelling |
215 |
|
|
7 Digital Modelling of Terrain Surface |
216 |
|
|
Abstract |
216 |
|
|
7.1 Introduction |
216 |
|
|
7.2 Related Work |
218 |
|
|
7.3 Densification of LiDAR Point Cloud |
221 |
|
|
7.3.1 Densification Approaches |
221 |
|
|
7.3.2 Measurement Errors |
222 |
|
|
7.4 Filtering of LiDAR Points |
224 |
|
|
7.4.1 Surface-Based Filtering |
224 |
|
|
7.4.2 Slope-Based Filtering |
228 |
|
|
7.4.3 Morphology-Based Filtering |
230 |
|
|
7.4.4 Segmentation-Based Filtering |
232 |
|
|
7.4.5 Hybrid Methods |
236 |
|
|
7.4.6 Comparison of Filtering Methods |
238 |
|
|
7.5 Generation of Digital Terrain Model |
240 |
|
|
7.5.1 Spatial Relationship Methods |
240 |
|
|
7.5.2 Statistical Methods |
245 |
|
|
7.5.3 Curve-Fitting Methods |
250 |
|
|
7.5.4 Surfaces’ Interpolation in ArcGIS Spatial Analyst |
251 |
|
|
7.5.5 Accuracy Estimators |
252 |
|
|
7.6 Experimental Results |
254 |
|
|
7.7 Conclusions |
257 |
|
|
References |
257 |
|
|
8 Texturing of Landscape Scenes |
262 |
|
|
Abstract |
262 |
|
|
8.1 Introduction |
262 |
|
|
8.2 Related Work |
264 |
|
|
8.2.1 Visualization Techniques for Digital Earth Surface Model |
264 |
|
|
8.2.2 Visualization Techniques for Tree and Plant Models |
267 |
|
|
8.3 Fundamentals of Texture Mapping |
268 |
|
|
8.4 Multi-resolution Texturing for Digital Earth Surface Model |
272 |
|
|
8.4.1 Basic Techniques |
273 |
|
|
8.4.2 Extended Techniques |
274 |
|
|
8.5 Multi-resolution Texturing for Vegetation Models |
277 |
|
|
8.6 Experimental Results |
283 |
|
|
8.7 Conclusions |
287 |
|
|
References |
288 |
|
|
9 Large Scene Rendering |
291 |
|
|
Abstract |
291 |
|
|
9.1 Introduction |
291 |
|
|
9.2 Related Work |
292 |
|
|
9.2.1 Overview of Terrain Rendering Techniques |
292 |
|
|
9.2.2 Overview of Object Rendering Techniques |
294 |
|
|
9.2.3 Overview of Realistic Lighting |
297 |
|
|
9.3 Large Landscape Scene Rendering |
300 |
|
|
9.4 Large Terrain Rendering |
301 |
|
|
9.5 Vegetation Rendering |
309 |
|
|
9.6 Realistic Lighting |
313 |
|
|
9.7 Shaders |
316 |
|
|
9.8 Conclusions |
327 |
|
|
References |
327 |
|
|
10 Scene Rendering Under Meteorological Impacts |
331 |
|
|
Abstract |
331 |
|
|
10.1 Introduction |
331 |
|
|
10.2 Related Work |
332 |
|
|
10.2.1 Overview of Wind Rendering |
332 |
|
|
10.2.2 Overview of Fog Rendering |
334 |
|
|
10.2.3 Overview of Rain Rendering |
335 |
|
|
10.2.4 Overview of Snow Rendering |
336 |
|
|
10.3 Wind Rendering |
338 |
|
|
10.4 Fog Simulation |
344 |
|
|
10.5 Rain Simulation |
350 |
|
|
10.6 Snow Covering Simulation |
356 |
|
|
10.7 Natural Objects’ Rendering |
360 |
|
|
10.7.1 Rendering of the Water Surfaces |
361 |
|
|
10.7.2 Rendering of Clouds |
364 |
|
|
10.8 Experimental Results |
366 |
|
|
10.9 Conclusions |
369 |
|
|
References |
370 |
|
|
Forest Ecosystem Modelling |
375 |
|
|
11 Lighting and Shadows Rendering in Natural Scenes |
376 |
|
|
Abstract |
376 |
|
|
11.1 Introduction |
376 |
|
|
11.2 Related Work |
377 |
|
|
11.3 Background of Lighting |
380 |
|
|
11.3.1 Lighting |
380 |
|
|
11.3.2 Material Properties |
390 |
|
|
11.3.3 Volume Rendering |
393 |
|
|
11.4 Simulation of Lighting in Modelling Scene |
394 |
|
|
11.4.1 Trees Lighting |
395 |
|
|
11.4.2 Foliage Lighting |
397 |
|
|
11.5 Simulation of Lighting Changes in Modelling Scene |
399 |
|
|
11.6 Implementation |
401 |
|
|
11.7 Conclusions |
402 |
|
|
References |
402 |
|
|
12 Modelling of Forest Ecosystems |
406 |
|
|
Abstract |
406 |
|
|
12.1 Introduction |
406 |
|
|
12.2 Related Work |
409 |
|
|
12.3 Forest Scene Modelling |
411 |
|
|
12.4 Forest Ecosystems |
413 |
|
|
12.5 Modelling of Living Conditions |
414 |
|
|
12.5.1 Soil’s Moisture and Minerals |
415 |
|
|
12.5.2 Wind |
416 |
|
|
12.5.3 Temperature |
417 |
|
|
12.5.4 Solar Radiation |
417 |
|
|
12.5.5 Forest Fire Risk Evaluation |
419 |
|
|
12.6 Conclusions |
421 |
|
|
References |
421 |
|