Foreword	5
	Preface	7
	Contents	9
	Part I: Deep-Sea Minerals: Distribution Characteristics and Their Resource Potential	11
	Chapter 1: Deep-Sea Mining: Current Status and Future Considerations	12
	1.1 Historical Perspective	12
	1.2 Economic Issues	17
	1.3 Technical Issues	20
	1.3.1 Delineation of Mine-Site and Estimation of Area for Mining	20
	1.3.2 Mining System Development	21
	1.3.3 Processing Technology and Waste Management	22
	1.4 Environmental Issues	23
	1.4.1 Impact of Environment on Mining	23
	1.4.2 Impact of Mining on Environment	23
	1.5 Policy Issues	26
	References	27
	Chapter 2: Composition, Formation, and Occurrence of Polymetallic Nodules	31
	2.1 Introduction	32
	2.2 Classification and Description	33
	2.2.1 General Classification	33
	2.2.2 Macroscopic and Microscopic Descriptions	33
	2.3 Chemical and Mineralogical Composition	37
	2.3.1 Chemical Composition	37
	2.3.2 Mineralogical Composition	44
	2.4 Formation of Manganese Nodules	47
	2.4.1 Hydrogenetic Precipitation	47
	2.4.2 Diagenetic Precipitation	51
	2.4.3 Microbial Manganese Mobilization and Deposition	58
	2.4.4 Hydrothermal Precipitation	59
	2.5 Occurrence of Manganese Nodules	60
	2.5.1 Clarion-Clipperton Zone	60
	2.5.2 Peru Basin	63
	2.5.3 Cook Islands	63
	2.5.4 Central Indian Ocean Basin	64
	2.5.5 Other Ocean Areas	65
	References	65
	Chapter 3: Marine Co-Rich Ferromanganese Crust Deposits: Description and Formation, Occurrences and Distribution, Estimated World-wide Resources	72
	3.1 Introduction	72
	3.2 Occurrence and Nature	73
	3.3 Mineralogy	78
	3.4 Formation and Growth Processes	83
	3.4.1 Hydrogenetic Accretion	83
	3.4.2 Diagenesis of and Epigenetic Mineral Formation in Older Crust Layers	89
	3.4.3 Chemical Composition	95
	3.4.3.1 Introduction	95
	3.4.3.2 Major Constituents	97
	3.4.3.3 Minor Elements	101
	3.4.3.4 Trace Elements	103
	Molybdenum and Tungsten	103
	Platinum and Palladium	104
	Niob and Gallium	111
	Tellurium	112
	Rare Earth Elements (REE)	114
	3.4.3.5 Metal Composition Versus Water Depth	119
	3.4.3.6 Interelement Relationships	122
	3.5 Total and Regional Metal Potentials	131
	3.5.1 Resource Assessment Model for Ferromanganese Crust Deposits	131
	3.5.2 Economic Considerations	136
	3.5.3 Regional Distribution of Crust Deposits	138
	3.6 Conclusions	143
	References	145
	Chapter 4: Seafloor Massive Sulfide Deposits: Distribution and Prospecting	149
	4.1 Introduction	149
	4.2 Historical Review of Hydrothermal Systems and SMS Deposits Study	150
	4.3 Distribution and Geological Setting of SMS Deposits	152
	4.4 Morphology of SMS Deposits	156
	4.5 Composition and Aging of SMS Deposits	161
	4.5.1 Age of SMS Deposits	162
	4.6 Formation and Source of Metals in SMS Deposits	163
	4.7 Criteria for Recognition and Strategy of SMS Exploration	164
	4.8 Exploration Technologies	165
	4.8.1 Hydrological Tools	165
	4.8.2 Geological Sampling Tools	166
	4.8.3 Remote and Autonomous Operating Vehicles	166
	4.8.4 Drilling Systems	166
	4.8.5 Manned Submersibles	167
	References	167
	Chapter 5: Submarine Phosphorites: The Deposits of the Chatham Rise, New Zealand, off Namibia and Baja California, Mexico—Origin, Exploration, Mining, and Environmental Issues	171
	5.1 Introduction	171
	5.2 Authigenic and Diagenetic Formation of Phosphorite	172
	5.3 The Chatham Rise Phosphorite	174
	5.3.1 Regional Setting and Seafloor Morphology	174
	5.3.2 Oceanographic Setting	177
	5.3.3 Formation of the Chatham Rise Phosphorites	177
	5.3.4 Distribution and Composition of the Chatham Rise Phosphorites	179
	5.3.5 Resource Estimation and Mining Concept	182
	5.3.6 Exploration History and Present Status (2015)	184
	5.4 Phosphorite Deposits off South Africa and Namibia	185
	5.4.1 Diagenetic Phosphorites off South Africa	185
	5.4.2 Authigenic Phosphorites off Namibia	186
	5.4.2.1 The Sandpiper Prospect	187
	5.4.2.2 Mining Concept	187
	5.4.2.3 Environmental Issues	188
	5.5 Authigenic Phosphorites off Baja California	189
	5.6 Future Development Prospects	189
	References	190
	Chapter 6: Predictive Mapping of the Nodule Abundance and Mineral Resource Estimation in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone Using Artificial Neural Networks and Classical Geostatistical Methods	194
	6.1 Introduction	194
	6.1.1 Scope of Work	194
	6.1.2 Data Used	195
	6.1.3 Software Used	196
	6.2 Description of Study Area	196
	6.2.1 Bathymetry	196
	6.2.2 Backscatter Data	198
	6.3 Predictive Mapping of Manganese Nodule Abundance	199
	6.3.1 Theoretical Background	199
	6.3.1.1 Artificial Neural Networks (ANN)	199
	6.3.1.2 Classical Geostatistics (Kriging)	201
	6.3.2 Data Processing	201
	6.3.3 Model Development and Calibration	203
	6.4 Modelling Results	203
	6.5 Resource Estimation of Manganese Nodules	207
	6.5.1 Resource Estimation Based on the ANN Model	207
	6.5.2 Resource Estimation Based on the Kriging Model	209
	6.6 Classification of Manganese Mineral Resources	210
	6.7 Conclusions and Recommendations	212
	References	214
	Chapter 7: Statistical Properties of Distribution of Manganese Nodules in Indian and Pacific Oceans and Their Applications in Assessing Commonality Levels and in Exploration Planning	218
	7.1 Introduction	218
	7.2 Nature of Data and Sources Used in the Study	219
	7.2.1 Major Sources of the Data Include	219
	7.3 Studies on Variabilities of Abundance and Metal Grades in Nodule Deposits	221
	7.4 Further Studies on Statistical Properties of Distribution of Nodule Abundance	222
	7.5 Comparative Variability Studies Between CIOB and CCZ	224
	7.6 Estimation Variance in Relation to Area of Nodule Field	225
	7.6.1 Verification of the Var(e)·Area Relationship	227
	7.7 Estimation Variance Computations for Selected Areas in CIOB and CCZ	228
	7.7.1 Observations on the Estimation Variance Values	229
	7.8 Commonality in Distribution Characteristics of Nodules in CIOB and CCZ	231
	7.9 Conclusions	231
	References	232
	Chapter 8: Assessment of Distribution Characteristics of Polymetallic Nodules and Their Implications on Deep-Sea Mining	234
	8.1 Introduction	234
	8.2 Estimation of Nodule Characteristics and Associated Features	236
	8.2.1 Measurement of Area Covered on the Seafloor	236
	8.2.2 Calculation of Nodule Abundance	237
	8.3 Distribution of Nodule Characteristics and Associated Features	238
	8.3.1 Frequency Distribution of Nodule: Size, Coverage, Abundance	238
	8.3.1.1 Nodule Size	238
	8.3.1.2 Nodule Coverage	241
	8.3.1.3 Nodule Abundance	241
	8.3.2 Association of Nodules with Different Substrates	242
	8.3.2.1 Effect of Sediment Cover	243
	8.3.2.2 Distribution of Rock Exposures	243
	8.3.3 Nodule Distribution in Different Topographic Settings	244
	8.4 Estimation of Mining-Related Variables	245
	8.4.1 Estimation of Mining Rates	245
	8.4.2 Estimation of Metal Production (MP)	245
	8.4.3 Estimation of Metal Value (MV)	246
	8.4.4 Estimating Total Mineable Area (M) According to UNOET (1987)	246
	8.4.5 Size (or Area) of Mine-Site (As) According to UNOET (1987) Is	246
	8.4.6 Area of Contact/Year (Ac)	246
	8.4.7 Ore Production/Day (Op)	247
	8.4.8 Volume of Sediment Disturbed at the Seafloor (Vs in m3)	247
	8.4.9 Wt. of Disturbed Sediment (Wet) or Water Laden Sediment (Ws(wet) in t)	247
	8.4.10 Wt. of Disturbed Sediment (Dry) or without Water (Ws(dry) in t)	247
	8.4.11 Wt. of Unwanted Material (Mu) to be Disposed Off (in Mt)	247
	8.5 Mining Estimates Based on Geological Factors	248
	8.5.1 Estimation of Mining Rates for Dry and Wet Nodules	248
	8.5.2 Metal Production for Different Mining Rates	249
	8.5.3 Mining Estimates for Different Mining Rates	249
	8.5.3.1 Estimation of Mineable Area	249
	8.5.3.2 Area (Size) of Mine-Site	250
	8.5.3.3 Area of Contact	250
	8.5.3.4 Ore Production	250
	8.5.3.5 Volume and Weight of Disturbed Sediment	252
	8.5.3.6 Unwanted Material After Metallurgical Processing	252
	8.6 Influence of Geological Factors on Mining Design	253
	8.6.1 Nodule Characteristics	253
	8.6.2 Association with Different Substrates	253
	8.6.3 Relation with Topography	254
	8.6.4 Optimization of Mining Rates	254
	8.6.5 Ore Production and Area of Mine-Site	254
	8.6.6 Environmental Impact and Waste Disposal	255
	8.7 Conclusions	256
	References	258
	Part II: Deep-Sea Mining Technology: Concepts and Applications	262
	Chapter 9: Fundamental Geotechnical Considerations for Design of Deep-Sea Mining Systems	263
	9.1 Introduction	263
	9.2 Importance of Geotechnical Characteristics on Design of Mining System	264
	9.3 Geotechnical Characteristics of Deep-Sea Minerals	268
	9.3.1 Manganese Nodules and Deep-Sea Sediments	268
	9.3.1.1 Manganese Nodules	268
	9.3.1.2 Deep-Sea Sediments	270
	Sediment Sampling	270
	Static Characteristics	270
	Dynamic Characteristics	272
	In Situ Measurement	276
	9.3.2 Seafloor Massive Sulfides	276
	9.3.3 Cobalt-Rich Manganese Crusts and Seamount Sediments	279
	9.3.3.1 Crusts and Substrates	279
	9.3.3.2 Seamount Sediments	282
	Sediment Sampling	282
	Geotechnical Characteristics	283
	9.4 Interactions with Mining Systems	285
	9.4.1 Interactions with Miner	285
	9.4.1.1 Drag	285
	9.4.1.2 Separating Force	289
	9.4.1.3 Seafloor Plume	289
	9.4.2 Interactions with Lift System	291
	9.4.2.1 Abrasion of Nodules	291
	9.4.2.2 Powderization of Sediments	292
	9.5 Actual Design of Deep-Sea Mining System	293
	9.6 Environmental Impact Studies and Scale of BIEs	296
	9.7 Conclusions	297
	References	299
	Chapter 10: Concepts of Deep-Sea Mining Technologies	309
	10.1 Introduction	309
	10.2 Historical Perspective	312
	10.3 Present-Day Technology	314
	10.3.1 Technical Specification of Underwater Mining System	317
	10.4 Studies Involved in Shallow Water Testing of Underwater Mining System	318
	10.4.1 Developmental Studies on Hydraulic Devices for Deep Sea in Hyperbaric Chamber	318
	10.4.2 Developmental Studies on Acoustic Positioning Systems	318
	10.4.3 Underwater Nodule Imaging System	319
	10.4.4 Investigations on Interactions of the Seabed with Nodule Collector	321
	10.4.5 Developmental Studies on Underwater Crushing Systems	321
	10.4.6 Flexible Riser System	322
	10.4.7 Development of Testing Facilities and Indigenous Deep-Sea Devices	323
	10.5 Laying of Artificial Nodules and Mining of Them at Shallow Waters	325
	10.5.1 Mechanical Systems	326
	10.5.2 Hydraulic Power Pack	326
	10.5.3 Servo Valve Pack	326
	10.5.4 Vane Feeder	327
	10.5.5 Thrusters	328
	10.5.6 Electrical Power Distribution System	328
	10.5.7 Telemetry	328
	10.5.8 Software	331
	10.5.9 Artificial Nodules Development	331
	10.5.10 Control and Operations	332
	10.5.11 Sea Trials at 520-m Water Depth	333
	10.6 Development of Mining System for Mining of Artificial Nodules	335
	10.6.1 Mining Machine	335
	10.6.2 Specification of Underwater Mining Machine	337
	10.6.3 Data Acquisition System on Ship	337
	10.6.4 Telemetry System	339
	10.6.5 Dynamic Positioning System	340
	10.6.6 Acoustic Positioning System	341
	10.6.7 Testing of System	342
	10.6.8 Launching and Retrieval System	342
	10.7 In Situ Soil Tester	345
	References	345
	Chapter 11: An Application of Ocean Mining Technology: Deep Ocean Water Utilization	348
	11.1 Introduction	348
	11.2 Features of Deep Ocean Water	350
	11.2.1 Water Temperature	350
	11.2.2 Nutrient Concentration	351
	11.2.3 Viable Bacterial Count	351
	11.2.4 Consumable Capacity of DOW	352
	11.3 Deep Ocean Water Applications	354
	11.3.1 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)	354
	11.3.2 Air Conditioning	354
	11.3.3 Fisheries Application	355
	11.3.4 Agricultural Application	355
	11.3.5 Freshwater Production	356
	11.3.6 Other Applications	356
	11.4 Multipurpose DOW Complex Float	356
	11.4.1 Concept of the Float	356
	11.4.2 Function of Multiple Systems	357
	11.4.2.1 Material Input	358
	11.4.2.2 Production Output	358
	11.4.2.3 Means and Apparatus	359
	11.4.2.4 Method of Operation	360
	11.4.3 Design of the 5 MW Type DOW Float	360
	11.4.4 Feasibility Study on the DOW Float	362
	11.4.5 Conclusion	362
	References	364
	Part III: Metallurgical Processing and Their Sustainable Development	366
	Chapter 12: Metallurgical Processing of Polymetallic Ocean Nodules	367
	12.1 Introduction	367
	12.1.1 Polymetallic Nodule as an Ore	368
	12.1.2 Considerations for Metallurgical Processing of Nodule	370
	12.2 The First Phase of Development of Metallurgical Processes for Nodules (1970–1985)	370
	12.2.1 The Cuprion Process	370
	12.2.2 Deep Sea Ventures (DSV) Process	372
	12.2.3 The Métallurgie Hoboken-Overpelt (MHO) Process	372
	12.2.4 International Nickel Company (INCO) Process	372
	12.2.5 High Pressure Acid Leaching Process	374
	12.3 Second Phase of R and D Efforts for Processing of Nodules (1985–2000)	375
	12.3.1 Four Metal Recovery by Aqueous Reduction in Acidic Media	375
	12.3.2 Three Metal Recovery by Aqueous Reduction in Ammoniacal Medium	376
	12.3.2.1 The National Institute for Resources and Environment (NIRE) of Japan	376
	12.3.2.2 Reduction Roasting Ammoniacal Leaching Process	376
	12.4 Recent Developments in Metallurgical Processing of Nodules by Some of the Contractors (2000 Onwards)	379
	12.4.1 Processes Developed by Various Organizations Sponsored by MOES India	379
	12.4.1.1 NH3-SO2 Process	379
	12.4.1.2 Reduction Roasting Ammoniacal Leaching Process	381
	12.4.1.3 Aqueous Reduction in Sulphuric Acid	381
	12.4.2 Processes Developed by IOM (an Intergovernmental Consortium of Bulgaria, Cuba, Czech Republic, Poland, Russian Federation, and Slovakia)	381
	12.4.2.1 Pyro-hydrometallurgical Process	381
	12.4.2.2 Hydrometallurgical Process	382
	12.4.3 Processes Developed by COMRA	383
	12.4.3.1 Pyro-hydrometallurgical Process (Improved INCO Process)	383
	12.4.3.2 Improved Cuprion Process	383
	12.4.4 Processes Developed by KIGAM	383
	12.5 A Few New Concepts	387
	12.5.1 Direct Use of Nodule Alloy in Stainless Steel	387
	12.5.2 Process Based on HCl-MgCl2 Leaching	388
	12.6 Conclusion	388
	References	391
	Chapter 13: Sustainable Processing of Deep-Sea Polymetallic Nodules	397
	13.1 Introduction	398
	13.2 Sustainability: General Outlook	399
	13.3 Sustainability and Process Development: Material Flow, Reuse and Critical Metals	400
	13.4 The Context of Environmental Management	404
	13.5 Impact Analysis of Processes	407
	13.5.1 Cradle-to-Gate Environmental Burdens: Common Metal Production and GHG Emissions	407
	13.5.2 Cradle-to-Gate Environmental Burdens: Several Metals	408
	13.5.3 GER/CED to Predict Environmental Burdens	410
	13.5.4 Recycle Rates and CED/GHG	410
	13.6 Sea Nodules Processing and Sustainability Issues	411
	13.7 Observations on Sea Nodules Processing Efforts	411
	13.7.1 Process Research and Flow Sheet Development	412
	13.7.2 Three Metal Option to Four Metal Option	412
	13.7.3 Upscaled Flow Sheet	413
	13.7.3.1 Ni, Co, and Cu Recovery (Approach 1)	414
	13.7.3.2 Manganese Recovery from Residue (Approach 1)	414
	13.7.3.3 Ni, Co, and Cu Recovery with Manganese Dissolution (Approach 2)	415
	13.7.3.4 Smelting of Sea Nodules (Approach 3)	415
	13.7.4 Flow Sheets and Techno-economic Evaluation	415
	13.8 Approach for Flow Sheet Impact Analysis: Using Nickel Equivalent	416
	13.8.1 Partitioning of Flow Scheme for Environmental Impact Using Nickel Equivalent	417
	13.8.2 Impact of Manganese Recovery	418
	13.8.3 Impact of Ni, Cu, and Co Recovery	419
	13.9 Reagents, Recycles, and Effect on GER	420
	13.10 Beyond Four Metal Recovery Route	420
	13.11 Conclusions	421
	References	422
	Chapter 14: Sustainable Development and Its Application to Mine Tailings of Deep Sea Minerals	425
	14.1 Introduction	425
	14.2 Applications in Agriculture	428
	14.3 Application in Concrete	435
	14.4 Application as Construction Fill	437
	14.5 Applications as Industrial Fillers	438
	14.5.1 Resin Casting-Solid Surface	438
	14.5.2 Tiles	438
	14.5.3 Rubber	439
	14.5.4 Plastic	439
	14.5.5 Coatings	439
	14.5.6 Drilling Mud	440
	14.5.7 Ceramics	440
	14.6 Conclusions	441
	References	442
	Part IV: Environmental Concerns of Impact of Deep-Sea Mining	444
	Chapter 15: Recent Developments in Environmental Impact Assessment with Regard to Mining of Deep-Sea Mineral Resources	445
	15.1 Current Status of Deep-Sea Mineral Resources Development	445
	15.1.1 Applications for Exploration/Exploitation Licenses	446
	15.1.2 Participation of Private Enterprises	446
	15.1.3 Current Technical Progress	448
	15.2 Environmental Impact Evaluation	448
	15.2.1 Impact Identification Thus Far	449
	15.2.2 Recent Developments in Environmental Impact Assessment	452
	15.2.3 Impact Evaluation Process	452
	15.3 Environmental Conservation Measures	453
	15.3.1 Initiatives in United Nations	454
	15.3.2 Ocean Governance in Relation to CBD	454
	15.3.3 Environmental Conservation in Relation to Deep-Sea Mineral Resources Development	455
	15.4 Japan’s Initiatives	457
	15.4.1 Ascertaining the Relationship Between Mining Methods and Environmental Impacts	457
	15.4.2 Development of Effective Taxonomic Technologies	458
	15.4.3 Development of Practical Environmental Monitoring System	458
	15.4.4 Harmonizing with International Trends	458
	15.5 Conclusion	459
	References	459
	Chapter 16: Taxonomic Problems in Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Linked to Ocean Mining and Possibility of New Technology Developments	464
	16.1 The Potential of Deep-Sea Mineral Resource Development	464
	16.2 Regularization of Environmental Impact Assessments	466
	16.3 Issues with Environmental Impact Assessments	467
	16.4 Lack of Human Resources in Taxonomy and Identification for Indexing the Impacts (Issues with Indexing)	470
	16.4.1 Taxonomy and Identification	470
	16.4.2 Development of Human Resources	471
	16.4.3 Issues Related to the Lack of Human Resources in Taxonomy and Identification	472
	16.5 Molecular Biological Approach in Environmental Impact Assessment	472
	16.5.1 Application to Species Identification	473
	16.5.2 Metagenomic Analysis	475
	16.5.3 Metatranscriptomic Analysis	477
	16.6 Conclusion	478
	References	478
	Chapter 17: Development of Environmental Management Plan for Deep-Sea Mining	482
	17.1 Introduction	482
	17.2 Potential Environmental Effects of Deep-Sea Mining	483
	17.2.1 Potential Seafloor Impacts	484
	17.2.2 Potential Water-Column Impacts	485
	17.2.3 Potential Upper-Water Column Impacts	486
	17.3 Global Efforts to Understand the Environmental Impacts	486
	17.3.1 Deep Ocean Mining Environment Study by OMI and OMA, USA	486
	17.3.2 Disturbance and Re-colonisation Experiment by Germany	486
	17.3.3 Benthic Impact Experiment by NOAA, USA	487
	17.3.4 Japan Deep-Sea Impact Experiment by MMAJ, Japan	487
	17.3.5 Interoceanmetal: Benthic Impact Experiment by East European Consortium	487
	17.3.6 Indian Deep-Sea Environment Experiment by NIO, India	488
	17.4 Evaluating the Results of the Benthic Impact Experiments (BIEs)	488
	17.4.1 Mechanism of the Experiments	488
	17.4.2 Scale of the Experiments	488
	17.4.3 Estimation of Weight and Volume of Sediment Discharge	490
	17.4.4 Extrapolation to Commercial Mining	491
	17.5 Environmental Considerations for Deep-Sea Mining	491
	17.5.1 Collector Device	491
	17.5.2 Surface Discharge	491
	17.5.3 At-Sea Processing, Ore Transfer, and Transport	492
	17.6 Environmental Management Plan for Deep-Sea Mining	492
	17.7 International Regulating Agencies for Deep-Sea Mining	493
	17.7.1 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea	493
	17.7.2 International Seabed Authority	494
	17.7.3 International Maritime Organization	494
	17.7.4 World Meteorological Organization	494
	17.8 Mitigation of Impacts Due to Different Activities	495
	17.8.1 Components of Marine Mining and Their Mitigation Measures	495
	17.8.2 Measures for Developing environmentally ‘Safe’ Mining System	498
	17.8.3 Identification of Preservation Reference Zone (PRZ)	498
	17.8.4 Hazard Management	499
	17.8.4.1 Human-Induced Hazards	499
	17.8.4.2 Natural Hazards	500
	17.9 Institutional Set-Up and EMP Framework	500
	17.9.1 Establishment of Environmental Monitoring Office	500
	17.9.2 Proposed Framework for EMP	501
	17.10 Conclusions	502
	References	503
	Websites (Accessed Between 10 June 2012 and 20 July 2012)	504
	Chapter 18: The Crafting of Seabed Mining Ecosystem-Based Management	506
	18.1 Introduction: 2025, the Optimistic	506
	18.2 From Global to Local: An Imperfect But Forward-­Thinking International Impetus	507
	18.3 The Ecosystem Approach: The Dynamics of Societies and Ecosystems	510
	18.4 The Ecosystem Approach in the Deep Sea	512
	18.5 Building with Nature	513
	18.6 New Challenges, New Forms of Governance	513
	18.7 A Nested and Progressive Governance Approach Building on Existing Frameworks and Instruments	514
	18.8 Ecologically or Biologically Significant Areas: An Inter-­Institutional Process	516
	18.9 Very Large Marine-Protected Areas: Experimenting Large-Scale Integrated Management	519
	18.10 The Primacy of a Regional Approach	520
	18.11 Knowledge and Expertise	520
	18.12 Ocean Literacy	521
	18.13 Conclusion: The Way Forward	522
	References	524
	Correction to: Composition, Formation, and Occurrence of Polymetallic Nodules	526
	Index	527