About the Editor	3
	Preface	7
	Acknowledgments	9
	Reviewers	10
	Contents	12
	Contributors	15
	Part I Introduction	27
	1 Introduction to Contaminated Site Management	28
	1.1 Status of Contaminated Sites	30
	1.1.1 History	30
	1.1.1.1 Early Soil Contamination	30
	1.1.1.2 Public and Political Awareness	31
	1.1.2 The Present Situation	32
	1.1.2.1 Extent of Soil Contamination	32
	1.1.2.2 Emissions to Soil	32
	1.1.3 Public Awareness	35
	1.1.4 The Contaminated Site Management Framework	36
	1.1.4.1 Schematization	36
	1.1.4.2 Problem Definition	37
	1.1.4.3 Protection Targets	38
	1.1.4.4 Land Use	39
	1.2 Soils and Sites	40
	1.2.1 Soils	40
	1.2.1.1 Definition	40
	1.2.2 Contaminated Sites	43
	1.3 Contaminants	45
	1.3.1 Terminology	45
	1.3.2 Daily Life	45
	1.3.3 Categorisation	46
	1.3.3.1 Metals and Metalloids	47
	1.3.3.2 Other Inorganic Contaminants (Other than Metals and Metalloids)	48
	1.3.3.3 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons	48
	1.3.3.4 Monocyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons	48
	1.3.3.5 Persistent Organic Pollutants	49
	1.3.3.6 Volatile Organic Contaminants	49
	1.3.3.7 Other Organochlorides	50
	1.3.3.8 Petroleum Hydrocarbons	50
	1.3.3.9 Asbestos	51
	1.3.4 Occurrence in Soils and Groundwater	52
	1.3.5 Mixtures of Contaminants	52
	1.3.6 Scope of This Book	53
	1.4 Site Characterisation	53
	1.5 Risk Assessment	55
	1.5.1 Principles	55
	1.5.2 The Concept of Risk	56
	1.5.3 Procedure	57
	1.5.4 Reliability	60
	1.5.4.1 Uncertainties and Variability	60
	1.5.4.2 Dealing with Uncertainties and Variability	61
	1.5.4.3 Validation	63
	1.6 Risk Management	64
	1.6.1 Scope	64
	1.6.2 The Source	65
	1.6.3 Procedures	65
	1.6.4 Remediation Technologies	66
	1.6.4.1 Scope	66
	1.6.4.2 In Situ Remediation Technologies	66
	1.6.4.3 Ex Situ Remediation Technologies	69
	1.6.4.4 Barriers	70
	1.6.5 Ecological Recovery	70
	1.6.6 Remediation Objectives	71
	1.7 A Closer Look into Risk Assessment	72
	1.7.1 Types of Risk Assessment	72
	1.7.1.1 Purpose	72
	1.7.1.2 Site-Specific Risk Assessment	72
	1.7.1.3 Potential Risk Assessment	73
	1.7.2 Soil Quality Standards	73
	1.7.3 Measurements	75
	1.7.4 Laboratory Data Versus Field Data	77
	1.7.5 Expert Judgement	78
	1.7.6 Essential Metals	79
	1.7.7 Background Concentrations	79
	1.7.8 Spatial Scale	81
	1.7.9 Time Domain	82
	1.7.10 Costs of Soil Contamination	83
	1.7.11 Cost-Benefit Analyses	84
	1.7.12 Integration of Human Health and Ecological Risk Assessment	84
	1.7.13 Harmonisation of Risk Assessment Tools	85
	1.7.14 Brownfields	86
	1.7.15 Risk Perception and Risk Communication	87
	1.8 Approaches Towards Contaminated Site Assessment and Management	89
	1.8.1 Evolution	89
	1.8.2 Multifunctionality	89
	1.8.3 Fitness-for-Use	90
	1.8.4 A More Pragmatic Approach	91
	1.8.4.1 Mentality Change	91
	1.8.4.2 Natural Attenuation	91
	1.8.5 Market-Oriented Approach to Site Development	92
	1.8.6 Integrated Approaches	93
	1.8.6.1 Interdepartmental	93
	1.8.6.2 Spatial Planning	93
	1.8.6.3 Chemical, Physical and Biological Soil Quality Assessment	94
	1.8.6.4 Environmental, Socio-Cultural and Economic Assessment	94
	1.8.6.5 Life Cycle Assessment	94
	1.8.7 Technical Approaches	95
	1.8.7.1 Risk Assessment Methodologies	95
	1.8.7.2 Conceptual Model	96
	1.8.7.3 Tiered Approach	97
	1.8.7.4 Weight of Evidence	98
	1.8.7.5 Decision Support Systems	98
	1.9 Sustainability	99
	1.10 Actors Involved	100
	1.10.1 Decision-Makers and Regulators	100
	1.10.2 Scientists	102
	1.10.3 Decision-Makers Versus Scientists	102
	1.10.4 The Risk Assessor	103
	1.10.5 Project Managers	104
	1.10.6 Major International Institutions	105
	1.11 Scope of the Book	107
	References	108
	2 Characteristics of Natural and Urban Soils	115
	2.1 Soils of Contaminated Sites	116
	2.1.1 Natural and Anthropogenic Soils	116
	2.1.2 Imported Filling Materials	120
	2.2 Inherited Geochemistry	121
	2.3 Contaminant Behaviour in Soils	129
	2.3.1 Chemical Affinities and Solubilities	129
	2.3.1.1 Acids and Bases	130
	2.3.1.2 Water-Immiscible Contaminants	130
	2.3.1.3 Metals and Metalloids -- Trace Elements	131
	2.3.1.4 Salts and Bases of Metal Alkaloids and Boron	131
	2.3.1.5 Nitrogen and Phosphorus	133
	2.3.1.6 Contaminants from Hospital Effluents and Sludges Discharged on Soil	134
	2.3.2 Adsorptive Behaviour and Specific Surface Areas	137
	2.4 Contamination Potential	138
	2.4.1 Soils of Deposited Material and Former Industrial Sites	139
	2.4.2 Additional Sources of Contamination	142
	2.5 Chemical Characteristics with Reference to Contaminated Sites	145
	2.6 Physical Characteristics with Reference to Contaminated Sites	148
	2.7 Case Studies	150
	2.7.1 The Soil as a Chromatogram -- Barium	150
	2.7.2 Arsenic in Weathered Rock at the New Victorian Museum, Melbourne	153
	2.7.3 Chromium in Soils	154
	2.7.4 Vanadium in Soils	156
	References	157
	Part II Site Investigation	161
	3 A Practical Approach for Site Investigation	162
	3.1 Introduction	163
	3.2 Not an Easy Task	163
	3.3 Objectives for the Investigation of Soil Quality	164
	3.4 Technical Goals	165
	3.5 Three Investigation Phases	166
	3.6 Preliminary Investigation	168
	3.7 Exploratory Investigation	175
	3.8 Main Investigation	181
	3.9 Sampling Patterns	183
	3.10 Sampling Techniques	184
	Literature	185
	4 Statistical Sampling Strategies for Survey of Soil Contamination	187
	4.1 Introduction	188
	4.2 Estimating (Parameters of) the Spatial Cumulative Distribution Function	189
	4.2.1 Sampling Designs	190
	4.2.1.1 Simple Random Sampling	191
	4.2.1.2 Stratified Simple Random Sampling	191
	4.2.1.3 Random Grid Sampling	194
	4.2.1.4 Advanced Sampling Designs	195
	4.2.2 Estimation	197
	4.2.2.1 Spatial Mean	197
	4.2.2.2 Areal Fraction with Concentrations Exceeding Threshold Concentration	200
	4.2.2.3 Spatial Cumulative Distribution Function	201
	4.2.2.4 Median and Other Percentiles	202
	4.2.3 Using Ancillary Information in Estimation	203
	4.2.3.1 Post-Stratification Estimator	203
	4.2.3.2 Regression-Estimator	203
	4.2.4 Composite Sampling	204
	4.2.5 Required Number of Sampling Locations	205
	4.2.5.1 Constraint on Sampling Variance or Coefficient of Variation	205
	4.2.5.2 Constraint on Probability of Error	206
	4.2.5.3 Constraints on Error Rates in Testing of a Hypothesis	207
	4.3 Estimating Mean Concentrations for Delineated Blocks	207
	4.3.1 Design-Based Approach	208
	4.3.1.1 Using Data from Outside the Block	209
	4.3.2 Model-Based Approach	210
	4.3.3 Required Number of Sampling Locations	210
	4.3.3.1 Bayesian Data-Worth Analysis	212
	4.4 Mapping Concentrations at Point Locations	212
	4.4.1 Sampling Patterns	213
	4.4.1.1 Purposive Grid Sampling	213
	4.4.1.2 Spatial Coverage and Spatial Infill Sampling	213
	4.4.1.3 Geostatistical Sampling	215
	4.4.1.4 Supplementary Sample for Estimating the Variogram	218
	4.4.2 Spatial Interpolation	219
	4.4.3 Required Number of Sampling Locations	221
	4.5 Detecting and Delineating Hot Spots	221
	4.5.1 Detecting Hot Spots	222
	4.5.1.1 Adding Sampling Locations to the Grid	223
	4.5.2 Delineating Hot Spots	224
	4.5.2.1 Phased Sampling	224
	4.5.2.2 Composite Sampling	224
	References	227
	Part III Human Health Aspects	229
	5 Human Health Risk Assessment	230
	5.1 Introduction	231
	5.1.1 Threat to Human Health	231
	5.1.2 Public Perception	232
	5.2 Principles of Human Health Risk Assessment	233
	5.2.1 Problem Definition	233
	5.2.2 Risk Characterisation	233
	5.2.3 Communication	234
	5.3 Exposure Assessment	234
	5.3.1 Definition	234
	5.3.2 Biomonitoring	235
	5.3.3 Exposure Calculations	238
	5.3.3.1 Exposure Models	238
	5.3.3.2 Contaminant Distribution	239
	5.3.3.3 Contaminant Transfer	240
	5.3.3.4 Major Exposure Pathways	240
	5.3.3.5 Other Exposure Pathways	244
	5.3.3.6 Overview Exposure Pathways	245
	5.3.3.7 Exposure Scenarios	245
	5.3.3.8 Input Parameters	247
	5.3.3.9 Reliability	248
	5.3.3.10 Measurements in Contact Media	249
	5.3.3.11 Good Exposure Assessment Practice	251
	5.4 Hazard Assessment	252
	5.4.1 Contaminants in the Human Body	252
	5.4.2 Threshold and Non-Threshold Effects	253
	5.4.3 Toxicological Reference Value for Threshold Contaminants	254
	5.4.3.1 Principles	254
	5.4.3.2 Assessment Factors	256
	5.4.4 Toxicological Reference Values for Non-Threshold Contaminants	258
	5.4.5 Reliability	259
	5.5 Risk Characterisation	260
	5.5.1 Site-Specific Risk Assessment	260
	5.5.2 Soil Quality Standards	261
	5.5.3 Relevant Time Span	263
	5.5.4 Background Exposure	265
	5.5.5 Combined Exposure	267
	5.6 A Closer Look at Human Health Risk Assessment	268
	5.6.1 Significance of Exceeding Toxicological Reference Values	268
	5.6.2 Odour Nuisance and Taste Problems	269
	5.6.3 Physiologically-Based PharmacoKinetic Modelling	270
	5.6.4 Probabilistic Human Health Risk Assessment	271
	5.6.5 Reliability	271
	5.6.6 Ethical Issues	272
	5.6.6.1 Human Beings	272
	5.6.6.2 Animals	273
	5.6.7 Relationship Scientist and Decision-Makers	273
	5.6.8 Site-Specific Risk Assessment	273
	References	275
	6 Exposure Through Soil and Dust Ingestion	281
	6.1 Introduction	282
	6.1.1 General Aspects	282
	6.1.2 Defining Soil and Dust	282
	6.1.3 Calculating Exposure Through Ingestion of Soil and Dust	284
	6.2 Quantification of Soil and Dust Ingestion Rates	285
	6.2.1 Tracer Element Methodology	285
	6.2.2 Alternative Approaches for Estimating Soil and Dust Ingestion	294
	6.2.3 Soil and Dust Ingestion Rates for Children and Adults	296
	6.2.4 Soil Ingestion Rates Recommended by International Regulatory Bodies	301
	6.2.5 Representativeness of Soil and Dust Ingestion Rates	301
	6.3 Conclusions	303
	References	304
	7 Oral Bioavailability	307
	7.1 Theory of Availability	308
	7.1.1 Oral Bioavailability	309
	7.1.1.1 Accessibility	310
	7.1.1.2 Absorption	311
	7.1.1.3 Metabolisation in the Liver	315
	7.1.2 Relative Bioavailability Factor	316
	7.1.3 Validation of Bioaccessibility Tests	319
	7.2 Influence of Soil Properties on Oral Bioaccessibility	320
	7.2.1 pH	320
	7.2.2 Soil Organic Matter	320
	7.2.3 Mineral Constituents	321
	7.2.4 Solid Phase Speciation and Bioaccessibility	325
	7.2.5 Soil Ageing	326
	7.2.6 Statistical Modelling of Bioaccessibility	326
	7.2.7 Soil Sampling and Preparation for Bioaccessibility/Bioavailability Measurements	327
	7.3 Considerations for the Potential Use of Site Specific Bioaccessibility Measurements	328
	7.4 Examples of Bioaccessibility Studies	329
	7.4.1 Geogenic Sources	330
	7.4.2 Anthropogenic Influences	331
	7.5 The BARGE Network	332
	7.5.1 Inter-Laboratory Studies	333
	7.5.2 Utilization of Bioaccessibility Data Across Europe	335
	References	336
	8 Uptake of Metals from Soil into Vegetables	345
	8.1 Introduction	346
	8.2 Metal and Metalloid Chemistry in Soil	346
	8.2.1 Cationic Metals	347
	8.2.2 Anionic Metals/Metalloids	349
	8.2.3 Effects of Soil Redox	350
	8.3 Plant Acquisition of Metals and Metalloids from Soil	351
	8.3.1 Root Uptake Pathway	351
	8.3.1.1 Speciation and Ion Uptake Rate	351
	8.3.1.2 Rhizosphere Processes	354
	8.3.1.3 Ion Competition Effects for Metal and Metalloid Uptake	355
	8.3.1.4 Translocation of Metals and Metalloids in the Plant	357
	8.3.2 Foliar Uptake of Metals	364
	8.4 Integrating Factors Affecting Metal/Metalloid Accumulation by Vegetables	368
	8.4.1 Type of Metal/Metalloid	368
	8.4.2 Vegetable Species	369
	8.4.3 Vegetable Cultivar	370
	8.4.4 Soil Physical/Chemical Properties	370
	8.4.4.1 pH	372
	8.4.4.2 Soil Texture and Depth of Contamination	372
	8.4.4.3 Soil Organic Matter	372
	8.4.4.4 Salinity	373
	8.4.4.5 Redox Potential	373
	8.4.4.6 Nutrient Status	373
	8.5 Models to Predict Contaminant Uptake by, or Toxicity to, Vegetables	374
	8.5.1 Model Characteristics	375
	8.5.1.1 Constant Heavy Metal Content for Each Plant Species	375
	8.5.1.2 Soil-Plant Transfer Models	375
	8.5.1.3 FIAM	377
	8.5.1.4 Biotic Ligand Model	378
	8.5.1.5 Physiological Models	378
	8.5.1.6 Barber-Cushman Mechanistic Model	379
	8.5.2 Application of Models	379
	References	380
	9 Uptake of Organic Contaminants from Soil into Vegetables and Fruits	388
	9.1 Introduction	390
	9.2 Uptake and Transport Processes	390
	9.3 Empirical Methods for Estimating Uptake of Contaminants into Plants	391
	9.3.1 Bioconcentration Factors	391
	9.3.2 Regression Equations	393
	9.3.3 Root Concentration Factor	393
	9.3.4 Partition Coefficients for Stem and Leaves	395
	9.3.5 Translocation from Roots into Stem and Leaves	396
	9.4 Mechanistic Models for Estimating Uptake of Contaminants into Plants	396
	9.4.1 Processes to Include in a Plant Uptake Model	397
	9.4.2 Mass Balance for a Dynamic Plant Uptake Model	397
	9.4.3 Steady-State Solution for the Root and Leaf Model	400
	9.4.4 General Solutions for a Cascade Model	400
	9.4.5 Input Data for the Root and Leaf Model	403
	9.5 Influence of Contaminant-Specific Parameters	403
	9.5.1 KOW on Accumulation in Roots and Potatoes	403
	9.5.2 KOW and KAW on Accumulation of Contaminants in Leaves	404
	9.5.3 Uptake from Air Versus Uptake from Soil	406
	9.5.4 Dissipation from Soil	407
	9.5.5 Impact of pKa and pH on Uptake of Ionisable Contaminants	408
	9.6 Influence of Plant-Specific Parameters	409
	9.6.1 Crop Types and Uptake Pathways	410
	9.6.2 Physiological Parameters	410
	9.6.3 Plant Morphology and Collection Efficiency for Particles	411
	9.6.4 Variation of Partition Coefficients	413
	9.6.5 Permeability	413
	9.6.6 Particle Deposition	414
	9.6.7 Metabolism in Plants	414
	9.7 Environmental Variables	416
	9.7.1 Climate	416
	9.7.2 Bioavailability	417
	9.7.3 Soil pH	417
	9.7.4 Uncertainties in Predictions	417
	9.8 Uptake Potential of Specific Substance Classes	418
	9.8.1 Chlorinated Solvents (PCE, TCE and Others)	418
	9.8.2 Gasoline Contaminants	419
	9.8.3 Heavy Petroleum Products	419
	9.8.4 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons	419
	9.8.5 Persistent Organic Pollutants POPs	419
	9.8.6 Explosives	419
	9.8.7 Phenols	420
	9.8.8 Cyanides	420
	9.9 Monitoring of Contaminants in Soils and Shallow Aquifers with Vegetation	420
	9.10 Conclusions	422
	References	422
	10 Vapor Intrusion	428
	10.1 Introduction	429
	10.2 Conceptual Models	429
	10.2.1 Vapor Source	430
	10.2.2 Pathway	431
	10.2.3 Receptor	434
	10.2.4 Vapor Intrusion Assessment Approach	435
	10.3 Fate and Transport Processes	437
	10.3.1 Phase Partitioning	438
	10.3.2 Biodegradation	440
	10.3.3 Soil Gas Advection	441
	10.3.4 Mixing Inside the Building	442
	10.4 Mathematical Modeling	442
	10.4.1 Mathematical Model Formulation	443
	10.4.1.1 Phase Partitioning	443
	10.4.1.2 Transport Through a Porous Media	445
	10.4.1.3 Vapor Intrusion into Buildings	446
	10.4.1.4 Attenuation Factors	446
	10.4.2 Available Vapor Intrusion Models	447
	10.4.2.1 Diffusion Models	449
	10.4.2.2 Diffusion and Convection Models	449
	10.4.2.3 Dilution Factor Models	451
	10.4.2.4 Numerical Models	452
	10.5 Sampling and Analysis	452
	10.5.1 Sampling and Analysis Challenges	452
	10.5.2 Pros and Cons of Sampling for Various Soil Compartments	453
	10.5.2.1 Shallow Groundwater	453
	10.5.2.2 Sub-Slab Soil Gas	455
	10.5.2.3 Soil Gas Samples Collected Adjacent to a Building	456
	10.5.2.4 Indoor Air	458
	10.5.2.5 Soil Sampling	460
	10.5.3 Analytical Methods	460
	10.5.4 Field Screening Considerations	461
	10.5.4.1 Photoionization Detectors (PIDs) and Flame Ionization Detectors (FIDs) for VOC Screening	461
	10.5.4.2 Landfill Gas Meters for Oxygen, Carbon Dioxide and Methane Concentrations	462
	10.5.4.3 Hexafluoride and Helium Meters	462
	10.5.4.4 Mobile Laboratories	462
	10.6 Mitigation	463
	10.6.1 Methods/Technologies for Existing Buildings	463
	10.6.1.1 Sub-Slab De-Pressurization	463
	10.6.1.2 Soil Vacuum Extraction	465
	10.6.1.3 Building Pressurization	465
	10.6.1.4 Sealing Cracks, Sumps, Sewers, and Other Potential Conduits	465
	10.6.1.5 Air Filtration	466
	10.6.2 Methods/Technologies for Future Buildings	466
	10.6.2.1 Intrinsically Safe Building Design	466
	10.6.2.2 Vapor Barriers and Ventilation Layers	466
	References	467
	11 Human Exposure Pathways	473
	11.1 Introduction	475
	11.1.1 Relevant Pathways	475
	11.1.2 Calculating Exposure	475
	11.2 Exposure Through Consumption of Vegetables	476
	11.2.1 Significance	476
	11.2.2 Conceptual Model	477
	11.2.2.1 Principles	477
	11.2.2.2 Differences Between Vegetable Types	478
	11.2.2.3 Representative Concentration in Vegetables	479
	11.2.3 Mathematical Equations	479
	11.2.3.1 Principles	479
	11.2.3.2 Metals	480
	11.2.4 Input Parameters	481
	11.2.4.1 Consumption of Vegetables	481
	11.2.4.2 Fraction of Vegetables that is Home-Grown	482
	11.2.4.3 Correction for Relative Bioavailability in the Human Body	483
	11.2.5 Site-Specific Risk Assessment of Exposure Though Vegetables Consumption	483
	11.2.6 Further Considerations	484
	11.2.7 Reliability and Limitations	484
	11.3 Exposure Through Consumption of Animal Products	484
	11.3.1 Conceptual Model	485
	11.3.1.1 Prediction of Contaminant Concentrations in Animal Tissues	485
	11.3.1.2 Calculation of Human Exposure	486
	11.3.2 Mathematical Equations	487
	11.3.2.1 Calculation of Animal Intake	487
	11.3.2.2 Calculation of the Concentration of Contaminant in Animal Products	487
	11.3.2.3 Calculation of Human Exposure	493
	11.3.3 Input Parameters	493
	11.3.3.1 Intake by Animals	493
	11.3.3.2 Parameters for Estimating the Concentration in Animal Tissues	495
	11.3.3.3 Human Consumption of Products	499
	11.3.4 Reliability and Limitations	499
	11.4 Exposure Via Domestic Water	501
	11.4.1 Conceptual Model	502
	11.4.2 Mathematical Equations	502
	11.4.2.1 Consumption of Drinking Water	502
	11.4.2.2 Inhalation of Volatilised Domestic Water	503
	11.4.2.3 Dermal Contact During Showering	503
	11.4.3 Input Parameters	504
	11.4.3.1 Consumption of Drinking Water	504
	11.4.3.2 Data for Volatilisation and Dermal Pathways	505
	11.4.4 Reliability and Limitations	505
	11.4.5 Verification and Validation	506
	11.5 Exposure Through Inhalation of Vapours Outdoors	506
	11.5.1 Conceptual Model	507
	11.5.2 Description of Models	507
	11.5.2.1 Calculation of Outdoor Air Concentration	508
	11.5.2.2 Calculation of Exposure	511
	11.5.3 Input Parameters	512
	11.5.3.1 Diffusivities	512
	11.5.3.2 Meteorological Parameters	513
	11.5.3.3 Receptor Height	513
	11.5.4 Influence of Physical Properties	514
	11.5.5 Influence of Human Behaviour	514
	11.5.6 Reliability and Limitations	514
	11.5.7 Verification and Validation	515
	11.6 Exposure Through Inhalation of Dust	515
	11.6.1 Conceptual Model	516
	11.6.2 Mathematical Equations	517
	11.6.2.1 Concentrations of Contaminants in Dust in Air	517
	11.6.2.2 Derivation of the Particulate Emission Factor	517
	11.6.2.3 Calculation of Exposure	518
	11.6.3 Input Parameters	519
	11.6.3.1 Dust Concentrations in Air	519
	11.6.3.2 Fraction of Dust from the Contaminated Site	520
	11.6.3.3 Concentration of Dust in Indoor Air	520
	11.6.3.4 Fraction of Dust Which is Respirable	521
	11.6.3.5 Contamination in Dust	521
	11.6.4 Inhaled Volume	521
	11.6.5 Influence of Soil Properties	522
	11.6.6 Influence of Human Behaviour	523
	11.6.7 Reliability and Limitations	523
	11.7 Exposure Through Dermal Uptake	524
	11.7.1 Significance	524
	11.7.2 Conceptual Model	524
	11.7.3 Mathematical Equations	525
	11.7.4 Input Parameters	526
	11.7.4.1 Dermal Absorption Fractions	526
	11.7.4.2 Soil Adherence Factors	527
	11.7.4.3 Skin Surface Area	528
	11.7.5 Reliability and Limitations	529
	References	529
	12 Hazard Assessment and Contaminated Sites	534
	12.1 Hazard Assessment and Contaminated Sites	536
	12.2 Hazard Identification	537
	12.3 Hazard Identification-Toxicology	538
	12.3.1 Toxicity Testing – Major In Vivo Study Types	539
	12.3.2 Important Issues in Toxicity Testing and Assessment	540
	12.3.2.1 Study Protocol and Design	540
	12.3.3 Assessment of the Quality of the Data Characterising the Hazard	542
	12.3.4 Analysis and Evaluation of Toxicity Studies	543
	12.3.5 Analysis and Evaluation of Major Study Parameters	543
	12.3.5.1 Mortality/ Survival	544
	12.3.5.2 Clinical Observations	545
	12.3.5.3 Body Weight Changes	545
	12.3.5.4 Haematological, Clinical Chemistry, and Urinary Measurements	545
	12.3.5.5 Absolute and Relative Organ Weights	546
	12.3.5.6 Post Mortem Observation	546
	12.3.5.7 Analysis and Evaluation of Study Parameters in Toxicity Studies	546
	12.3.5.8 Interspecies Scaling of Doses	548
	12.3.5.9 Route-to-Route Scaling	548
	12.3.5.10 Other Factors in Scaling of Doses	549
	12.3.5.11 Extrapolating Occupational Data to the General Public	549
	12.3.5.12 Statistical Tests	549
	12.3.5.13 Completion of Hazard Analysis	550
	12.3.6 Evaluation of the Weight-of-Evidence and Consideration of the Toxicology Database In Toto	551
	12.3.7 Methods for the Hazard Identification of Carcinogens	552
	12.3.8 The Hazard Identification Report	553
	12.4 Hazard Identification-Epidemiology	553
	12.4.1 Introduction	553
	12.4.2 Bias and Confounding: Key Concepts in Environmental Epidemiology	554
	12.4.3 Types of Epidemiological Study – An Overview	555
	12.4.3.1 Observational Studies	557
	12.4.4 Assessing the Relationship Between a Possible Cause and an Outcome	557
	12.4.5 The Strengths and Limitations of Observational Epidemiology Versus Experimental Toxicology	560
	12.4.5.1 Hazard Identification	561
	12.4.6 Undertaking Health Studies	562
	12.5 Dose-Response Assessment	563
	12.5.1 Introduction	563
	12.5.2 Methodologies	564
	12.5.3 Threshold Approaches	565
	12.5.4 Non-Threshold Approaches	566
	12.5.5 Threshold Versus Non-Threshold Approaches	567
	12.5.6 Mechanistically-Derived Models	569
	12.5.7 Benchmark Dose Approach	569
	12.5.8 Inter- and Intra-Species Considerations	571
	12.5.9 Mixtures	571
	12.5.10 Checklist for Toxicological Appraisals	572
	12.5.10.1 Hazard Identification	572
	12.5.10.2 Characterisation of Dose-Response	574
	12.5.11 Uncertainty and Variability in Hazard Assessment	575
	12.5.12 Sources of Toxicological and Tolerable Intake Data	575
	References	583
	Part IV Ecological Aspects	588
	13 Introduction to Ecological Risk Assessment	589
	13.1 Introduction	591
	13.1.1 Vital Soil	591
	13.1.2 Terminology, Ranking and Classification	592
	13.1.3 Public Perception	594
	13.2 Soil Biology	595
	13.2.1 Soil Life	595
	13.2.2 Classification of Organisms	595
	13.2.2.1 Types of Classification	595
	13.2.2.2 Fungi	597
	13.2.2.3 Bacteria	597
	13.3 Organisms in the Groundwater	598
	13.4 Significance of the Soil Ecosystem	598
	13.4.1 The Value of Soil Biology	598
	13.4.2 Biodiversity	599
	13.4.3 Ecosystem Services	601
	13.4.3.1 The Significance of Ecosystem Services	601
	13.4.3.2 Soil Structuring	602
	13.4.3.3 Humus Formation	603
	13.4.3.4 Element Cycling and Nutrient Supply	603
	13.4.3.5 Cleaning Function	605
	13.4.3.6 Disease Control	605
	13.4.3.7 Energy-Related Ecosystem Services	606
	13.4.4 Above-Ground Biology	607
	13.4.5 Agriculture	607
	13.5 Ecological Risk Assessment	608
	13.5.1 Principles	608
	13.5.2 Risk Characterisation	609
	13.5.3 Characteristics of Exposure	610
	13.5.3.1 Oral and Dermal Exposure	610
	13.5.3.2 Bioavailability	611
	13.5.4 Endpoints	613
	13.5.5 Other Stress Factors	615
	13.5.5.1 Ecological Impact	615
	13.5.5.2 Soil Type, Properties and Structure	615
	13.5.5.3 Food Supply	616
	13.5.5.4 Sealing and Compaction	616
	13.5.6 Political Awareness	618
	13.6 Ecological Risk Assessment in Practice	620
	13.6.1 Soil Quality Assessment	620
	13.6.2 Soil Quality Standards	621
	13.6.3 Site-Specific Risk Assessment	622
	13.7 A Closer Look into Ecological Risk Assessment	622
	13.7.1 Resilience and Recovery	622
	13.7.2 Adaptation	623
	13.7.3 Land Use	624
	13.7.4 Secondary Poisoning and Food Web Approach	625
	13.7.5 Wildlife Protection	626
	13.7.6 Scale and Contaminant Pattern	627
	13.7.7 Spatial Planning	628
	13.8 Sustainability	628
	13.8.1 Political Significance	628
	13.8.2 The Benefits of Sustainability	629
	13.8.3 Agriculture	630
	13.8.4 Improving Sustainability	631
	13.9 Monitoring the Soil Ecosystem Quality	631
	13.9.1 Indicators	631
	13.9.2 Significance of Monitoring the Soil Ecosystem Quality	632
	13.9.3 Possibilities for Monitoring	632
	13.9.4 Biological Classification Systems	633
	13.9.4.1 Biological Indicator for Soil Quality (BISQ)	634
	References	635
	14 Ecological Risk Assessment of Diffuse and Local Soil Contamination Using Species Sensitivity Distributions	641
	14.1 Aims of this Chapter and Readers Guide	643
	14.2 Soil Protection Motives and Impacts of Non-Protection	644
	14.2.1 Protecting Living Soil -- Motives	644
	14.2.2 Protecting Living Soil -- Handling Diverse Stressor Responses	645
	14.2.3 Field Effects of Soil Contamination in a Pollution Gradient	645
	14.2.4 From Field Effects to SSD Modeling	647
	14.3 SSD Modeling and Practical Needs	648
	14.3.1 Basics of Distribution Modeling as an Assessment Approach	648
	14.3.2 Two Practical Needs and Two Useful SSD Applications	650
	14.4 Theoretical Basis of SSD Modeling	651
	14.4.1 Why SSDs Fit the Risk Assessment Paradigm and Practices	651
	14.4.1.1 Hazardous Concentrations	652
	14.4.1.2 Hazard Potential or Toxic Pressure	653
	14.4.2 Extrapolation: From Probably to Potentially Affected Fraction	653
	14.4.3 The Conceptual Interpretation of SSDs: PAF and PES	655
	14.4.4 Discussions of SSDs, Assumptions and Interpretation	655
	14.5 Validity of SSD-Based Output in Ecological Risk Assessment	657
	14.6 SSDs and Ranking of Contaminants or Sites	660
	14.6.1 SSDs and Ranking Contaminants	660
	14.6.2 SSDs and Ranking Sites	662
	14.6.3 SSDs, Rankings and Weighting in SSDs	662
	14.7 SSDs and Cost Effectiveness of Environmental Management	662
	14.8 Practical Basis of SSD Modeling	663
	14.8.1 Ingredient 1: The Input Data	663
	14.8.1.1 Raw Input Data	663
	14.8.1.2 Pre-Treatment of Input Data	664
	14.8.1.3 Example Data Bases	665
	14.8.2 Ingredient 2: The Statistical Approach	665
	14.8.2.1 Options for Model Choice	665
	14.8.2.2 Selecting a Model	665
	14.8.2.3 Software	666
	14.9 Statistical Issues in SSD Modeling and Interpretation	666
	14.9.1 Minimum Data Numbers and (Mis)Fit	666
	14.9.2 Presenting Confidence Intervals	667
	14.9.3 Interpreting Statistical Confidence Intervals	668
	14.9.4 Options to Handle Small Sets of Input Data	670
	14.9.5 Handling the Possible Causes of Misfit	670
	14.10 Other Issues in SSD Modeling and Interpretation	671
	14.10.1 Comparison of Hazard Indices and PAF	671
	14.10.2 Dealing with Natural Background Concentrations	672
	14.10.3 The Influence of Soil Type and Soil Properties	673
	14.10.4 When Soil Concentrations are Very High	673
	14.10.5 When Soil Concentrations in an Area Vary	675
	14.10.6 When There is a Mixture of Contaminants	675
	14.10.7 When the Environmental Problem is Refined: Tiers for SSDs	678
	14.11 Weight-of-Evidence and Tiered Use of SSD Output	679
	14.12 Key Strengths and Limitations of SSDs	681
	14.13 Practices of SSD Use	682
	14.13.1 Practical Approaches in this Chapter	682
	14.13.2 Criterion Risk Assessments, the Oldest Use of SSDs	683
	14.13.3 The Dilemma of Conservative Quality Standards	684
	14.13.4 From Criterion Risk Assessment to Conventional Risk Assessment	685
	14.13.5 Conventional Risk Assessments with SSDs: A Versatile Approach	685
	14.14 Examples of Conventional Risk Assessment of Soil Contamination with SSDs	687
	14.14.1 Policy Framework Backgrounds -- The Netherlands	687
	14.14.2 GIS Mapping of Soil Quality	688
	14.14.2.1 Problem Setting	688
	14.14.2.2 Approach	689
	14.14.2.3 Conventional Risk Assessment Results	689
	14.14.2.4 Management Assessment	690
	14.14.2.5 Outcome Assessment	691
	14.14.3 Handling Slightly Contaminated Sediments	691
	14.14.3.1 Problem Setting	691
	14.14.3.2 Approach	691
	14.14.3.3 Conventional Risk Assessment Results	692
	14.14.3.4 Management Assessment	693
	14.14.3.5 Outcome Assessment	694
	14.14.4 Soil Quality Classes and Local Risks to Manage Local Soils	694
	14.14.4.1 Problem Setting	694
	14.14.4.2 Approach	695
	14.14.4.3 Conventional Risk Assessment Results	695
	14.14.4.4 Management Assessment and Outcome Assessment	696
	14.14.5 GIS-Mapping of Remediation Sites and Monitoring of Remediation Policies	697
	14.14.5.1 Problem Setting	697
	14.14.5.2 Approach	697
	14.14.5.3 Conventional Risk Assessment Results	697
	14.14.5.4 Management Assessment	698
	14.14.5.5 Outcome Assessment	699
	14.14.6 A Contrasting Approach, the U.S. Superfund	699
	14.15 Reflections and Conclusions	700
	References	702
	15 Site-Specific Ecological Risk Assessment	708
	15.1 The Soil Ecosystem and Site-Specific Risk Assessment	709
	15.1.1 Appreciation of the Ecosystem at Contaminated Sites	711
	15.1.2 Stakeholder Involvement	711
	15.2 Working Hypotheses, Definition of Conceptual Models and ERA Frameworks	713
	15.3 Weight of Evidence and the Triad Approach	715
	15.4 Practical Issues for Adoption of the Triad Approach	716
	15.4.1 Uncertainty	716
	15.4.2 Selection of Assessment Tools	717
	15.4.3 Quantification and Scaling	718
	15.4.4 Weighting of Effect Values	721
	15.4.5 Reference Information	722
	15.5 Integration of Lines of Evidence and Final Results	723
	15.6 Embedding ERA in Formal Assessment Frameworks	725
	15.6.1 An Example of a General Framework from the Netherlands	725
	15.6.2 Examples of the Lines of Evidence in the Dutch Remediation Criterion	726
	Box 15.1 Chemical characterization of effects	727
	Toxicity Characterization with Bioassays	728
	Approximation of Effects from Ecological Field Monitoring	729
	15.6.3 Outline of ERA in Other Countries	730
	15.7 Outlook	731
	References	732
	16 Bioavalibility in Soils	736
	16.1 Introduction	737
	16.2 What is Bioavailability?	738
	16.3 Impact of Soil Properties on Bioavailability	739
	16.3.1 Metals and Metalloids	740
	16.3.2 Organic Contaminants	742
	16.4 Measurement of Bioavailability	747
	16.4.1 Extractions for Determining Bioavailability	747
	16.4.1.1 Metals and Metalloids	748
	16.4.1.2 Organic Contaminants	750
	16.4.2 Modelling the Bioavailability of Contaminants	752
	16.4.2.1 Metals and Metaloids	752
	16.4.2.2 Organic Contaminants	754
	16.5 Concluding Remarks	756
	References	756
	Part V Groundwater-Related Aspects	762
	17 Groundwater-Related Risk Assessment	763
	17.1 Introduction	764
	17.1.1 Subsurface Water	764
	17.1.2 Terminology	767
	17.1.3 Groundwater Quality	768
	17.1.3.1 Natural Impact on Groundwater	768
	17.1.3.2 Anthropogenic Impact on Groundwater	768
	17.1.3.3 Impact of a Revised Quantitative Groundwater Regime	770
	17.1.4 Scope of the ''Groundwater-Related Aspects (Part V)''	770
	17.2 Groundwater as Protection Target	772
	17.2.1 Human Use	772
	17.2.2 Ecological Habitat Function	774
	17.2.3 Intrinsic Value	774
	17.2.4 Sustainability	775
	17.2.5 Appreciation	776
	17.2.5.1 General Public	776
	17.2.5.2 The Groundwater Ecosystem	778
	17.2.5.3 Political	778
	17.3 Groundwater as Contaminant Pathway	779
	17.3.1 Source-Pathway-Receptor Approach	779
	17.3.2 Transport Characteristics	780
	17.3.2.1 General Transport Pattern	780
	17.3.2.2 Impact of Heterogeneous Soils or Aquifer	781
	17.3.2.3 Impact of Surface Water Bodies and Anthropogenic Subsurface Processes and Structures	781
	17.4 Calculating Contaminant Transport	782
	17.4.1 Conceptual Models	782
	17.4.2 Mathematical Models	783
	17.4.2.1 Role and Principles	783
	17.4.2.2 Numerical Models	784
	17.4.3 Reliability of Model Calculations	785
	17.4.3.1 Uncertainties	785
	17.4.3.2 Dealing with Uncertainties	788
	17.4.4 Good Modelling Practice	788
	17.5 Risk Management	790
	17.5.1 Scope	790
	17.5.2 Natural Attenuation	790
	17.5.3 Regional Approaches	791
	17.6 Sampling and Monitoring	791
	17.6.1 Purpose	791
	17.6.2 Groundwater Concentration Pattern	791
	17.6.3 Lysimeters and Column Experiments	792
	17.7 A Closer look into Groundwater-Related Risk Assessment	793
	17.7.1 Impact of Climate Change	793
	17.7.2 Mingling Groundwater Plumes	794
	17.7.3 Risk Perception and Communication	795
	17.7.4 European Water Framework Directive and Groundwater Daughter Directive	795
	17.8 Site-Specific Assessment of Exposure Through Contaminant Transport	796
	References	796
	18 Leaching of Contaminants to Groundwater	800
	18.1 Introduction	801
	18.2 Variably Saturated Water Flow	803
	18.2.1 Water Retention and Hydraulic Conductivity	804
	18.2.1.1 Water Retention	804
	18.2.1.2 Hydraulic Conductivity	808
	18.2.2 Mass Balance Equation	810
	18.2.3 Preferential Flow	812
	18.2.4 The Evapotranspiration Process	812
	18.2.5 Penman-Monteith Equation for Evapotranspiration	814
	18.2.6 FAO56 Reference Evapotranspiration	815
	18.2.7 Root Water Uptake	816
	18.2.8 Application: Numerical Simulations of Variably Saturated Flow in a Soil Profile	817
	18.2.8.1 Single-Layer Soil	817
	18.2.8.2 Two-Layer Soil	820
	18.3 Contaminant Transport	821
	18.3.1 Transport Processes	822
	18.3.1.1 Diffusion	823
	18.3.1.2 Dispersion	824
	18.3.1.3 Advection	825
	18.3.2 Advection-Dispersion Equations	826
	18.3.2.1 Transport Equations	826
	18.3.2.2 Linear and Non-Linear Sorption	827
	18.3.2.3 Volatilization	827
	18.3.2.4 Initial and Boundary Conditions	829
	18.3.3 Nonequilibrium Transport	830
	18.3.3.1 Physical Nonequilibrium	830
	18.3.3.2 Chemical Nonequilibrium	832
	18.3.3.3 Colloid-Facilitated Solute Transport	833
	18.3.4 Stochastic Models	834
	18.3.4.1 Flow and Transport Parameter Heterogeneity	834
	18.3.4.2 Stream Tube Models	838
	18.3.5 Multicomponent Reactive Solute Transport	839
	18.3.6 Multiphase Flow and Transport	840
	18.4 Analytical Models	841
	18.4.1 Analytical Approaches	841
	18.4.2 Existing Models	841
	18.4.2.1 One-Dimensional Models	841
	18.4.2.2 Multi-Dimensional Models	842
	18.5 Numerical Models	842
	18.5.1 Numerical Approaches	842
	18.5.1.1 Finite Differences	843
	18.5.1.2 Finite Elements	844
	18.5.2 Existing Models	844
	18.5.2.1 Single-Species Solute Transport Models	844
	18.5.2.2 Biogeochemical Transport Models	847
	18.6 Concluding Remarks	852
	References	854
	19 Contaminant Fate and Reactive Transport in Groundwater	864
	19.1 Introduction	865
	19.2 Basic Theory on Contaminant Transport	866
	19.2.1 Contamination Sources and Plume Formation	867
	19.2.2 Advection	869
	19.2.3 Hydrodynamic Dispersion	869
	19.2.4 Sorption	872
	19.2.5 Biodegradation	874
	19.3 Contaminant Transport Models	877
	19.3.1 Governing Equations	878
	19.3.2 Mathematical Models	879
	19.3.3 Model Application	881
	19.4 Reactive Transport Scenarios	882
	19.5 Case Study: Transport of Ammonium from a Landfill	889
	19.6 Summary and Conclusions	895
	References	895
	Part VI Risk Management	899
	20 Sustainability and Remediation	900
	20.1 Introduction	901
	20.2 Concepts	902
	20.2.1 Sustainability	902
	20.2.1.1 Sustainability Appraisal in Overview	902
	20.2.1.2 Using Indicators in Sustainability Appraisal	903
	20.2.1.3 The Driver, Pressure, State, Impact and Response (DPSIR) Framework	907
	20.2.2 Risk Management	908
	20.2.2.1 Risk Management Principles	908
	20.2.2.2 Institutional Controls	910
	20.2.3 Sustainable Remediation	911
	20.2.4 Frameworks	913
	20.2.5 International Initiatives in Sustainable Remediation	919
	20.2.6 Communicating Sustainability and Risk Management	921
	20.3 Using Sustainability Appraisal in Remediation Option Appraisal	923
	20.3.1 The Scope of Sustainability Appraisal as a Decision Support Process in Projects	924
	20.3.1.1 Using an Indicator Hierarchy	925
	20.3.1.2 Using Key Performance Indicators (KPIs)	927
	20.3.1.3 Agreeing Sustainability Indicator Approaches for Remediation	927
	20.3.2 Using Sustainability for Technology Promotion and for Corporate Reporting	928
	20.3.2.1 Promotion of Remediation Technologies	928
	20.3.2.2 Linkage to Corporate Reporting	928
	20.3.3 Frameworks and Boundaries	929
	20.3.4 Techniques and Tools and Their Applicability	932
	20.3.4.1 Systems Using Scores, Rankings, Weightings, Including Multi-Criteria Analysis	932
	Box 20.1 Multi-Criteria Analysis (MCA)	933
	20.3.4.2 Best Available Technique (BAT)	934
	20.3.4.3 Carbon Footprint (''Area'')	934
	20.3.4.4 Carbon Balance (Flows)	935
	20.3.4.5 Cost Benefit Analysis	935
	20.3.4.6 Cost Effectiveness Analysis	937
	20.3.4.7 Eco-Efficiency	937
	20.3.4.8 Ecological Footprint	938
	20.3.4.9 Energy Intensity/Efficiency	938
	20.3.4.10 Risk Assessment	938
	20.3.4.11 Environmental Impact Assessment/Strategic Environmental Assessment	939
	20.3.4.12 Financial Risk Assessment	940
	20.3.4.13 Industrial Ecology	940
	20.3.4.14 Life Cycle Assessment	941
	20.3.4.15 Quality of Life Capital Assessment	942
	20.4 Applied Sustainable Remediation	942
	20.5 Case Studies	945
	20.5.1 Soil Redevelopment in the Volgermeerpolder, Amsterdam, the Netherlands	945
	20.5.2 Wind Powered Passive Aeration Remediation Systems	946
	20.5.3 Sustainable Reuse of Contaminated Sediments	948
	20.5.4 The Use of the REC Method to Select a Remediation Strategy	948
	20.5.5 ''Sanergy'' as a Sustainable Synergy of Remediation and Groundwater Energy	950
	20.6 The Future Perspective of Sustainable Management of Contaminated Sites	952
	20.6.1 A New Basis for Decision Making	952
	20.6.2 Work in Progress	952
	20.6.3 Technological Innovation by Combining State of the Art Techniques	953
	20.6.4 Synergies: Go with the Flow	953
	References	954
	21 In Situ Remediation Technologies	960
	21.1 Introduction	961
	21.1.1 Background of In Situ Remediation	961
	21.1.2 Scope	962
	21.2 In Situ Remediation Technologies	963
	21.2.1 Principles	963
	21.2.1.1 Equilibrium Relations of Organic Contaminants in Soil	963
	21.2.1.2 Limiting Environmental Factors	967
	21.2.2 In Situ Technologies	972
	21.2.2.1 Source Oriented In Situ Technologies	972
	21.2.2.2 Path Oriented In Situ Technologies	975
	21.2.2.3 Receptor Oriented In Situ Technologies	977
	21.3 Integration of In Situ Technologies in Risk Management	978
	21.3.1 Risk Management Concepts and Frameworks	978
	21.3.2 Risk Management Application	980
	21.3.3 Risk Management at Contaminated Megasites	981
	21.3.3.1 Starting the IMS	981
	21.3.3.2 Risk Assessment	981
	21.3.3.3 Management Scenarios	983
	21.3.3.4 Implementation	983
	21.4 Outlook	984
	References	985
	22 Natural Attenuation	989
	22.1 Introduction	990
	22.1.1 Principles	990
	22.1.2 History	991
	22.1.3 Definition	992
	22.1.4 Political and Practical Acceptance	993
	22.2 Principles of Natural Attenuation	994
	22.2.1 Plume Development and Transport Processes	994
	22.2.2 Proving Natural Attenuation and Implementing Monitored Natural Attenuation	996
	22.2.3 Methods to Prove Monitored Natural Attenuation	998
	22.3 Natural Attenuation at Petroleum Hydrocarbon Contaminated Sites	1002
	22.3.1 Characteristics of Petroleum Hydrocarbon Mixtures	1002
	22.3.2 Natural Attenuation Potential and Challenges at Petroleum Hydrocarbon Contaminated Sites	1004
	22.4 Natural Attenuation at Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Contaminated Sites	1006
	22.4.1 Characteristics of Chlorinated Hydrocarbons	1006
	22.4.2 Evaluation of Natural Attenuation Potential and Challenges at Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Contaminated Sites	1008
	22.4.3 Enhanced Natural Attenuation	1010
	22.5 Natural Attenuation at Tar Oil Contaminated Sites	1010
	22.5.1 Introduction	1010
	22.5.2 Characteristics of Tar Oil	1011
	22.5.2.1 Tar Oil Components	1011
	22.5.3 Natural Attenuation Potential of Tar Oil	1017
	22.5.4 Summary	1018
	22.6 Conclusions and Outlook	1019
	References	1021
	Part VII Frameworks	1025
	23 Bringing Sustainable Management of Contaminated Sites into Practice The Role of Policy and Regulations	1026
	23.1 Introduction	1027
	23.2 The Development of an Environmental Policy for Soil in the European Union	1029
	23.2.1 The Status of Soil and Soil Contamination	1029
	23.2.1.1 Agricultural Areas	1030
	23.2.1.2 Natural Areas	1030
	23.2.1.3 Urban Areas and Infrastructures	1030
	23.2.1.4 Sediments	1031
	23.2.2 Prevention of Contamination and Management of Contaminated Sites	1032
	23.3 Three Generations of National Contaminated Sites Management Policies	1034
	23.3.1 Generation 1: Command and Control Regulations by National Authorities	1035
	23.3.2 Generation 2: Flexibility in National Regulations, Room for Local Site Specific Decisions	1035
	23.3.3 Generation 3: Regulations are Used to Create Opportunities and to Remove Barriers for Remediation by Private Parties	1036
	23.4 Contaminated Site Networks and Network Debates	1036
	23.4.1 Environment Versus Spatial Planning as a Driver for Remediating Contaminated Sites	1037
	23.4.2 Generic Soil ''Numbers'' Versus Site Specific Risk Assessment	1038
	23.4.3 Risk Management	1039
	23.5 A Policy Makers View on Risk Assessment for Contaminated Sites	1040
	23.5.1 A General Framework for Risk Assessment for Contaminated Sites	1041
	23.5.2 Risk Assessment and Risk Management	1043
	23.5.3 The Role of a Scientist in Risk Assessments	1045
	23.5.3.1 Framing Uncertainty	1045
	23.5.3.2 Modelling Uncertainty	1045
	23.5.3.3 Statistical Uncertainty	1046
	23.5.3.4 Decision Theoretic Uncertainty	1046
	23.5.4 Risk Perception and Communication	1046
	23.6 Risk-Based Land Management -- The Concept	1046
	23.6.1 The Term ''Risk-Based Land Management''	1047
	23.6.1.1 Risk	1047
	23.6.1.2 Land	1048
	23.6.1.3 Management	1048
	23.6.2 The Components of Risk-Based Land Management	1048
	23.6.2.1 Fitness for Use	1048
	23.6.2.2 Protection of the Environment	1049
	23.6.2.3 Long-Term Care	1049
	23.7 Application of RBLM in Practice	1050
	23.7.1 Risk Reduction	1051
	23.7.1.1 The Time Frame	1051
	23.7.1.2 Choice of Solution	1051
	23.7.2 Land Use Related Requirements	1052
	23.7.2.1 Practical Needs	1052
	23.7.2.2 Spatial Planning Requirements	1053
	23.7.3 Using Natural Capacities in the Soil and Water Environment	1054
	23.7.4 Costs	1055
	23.7.4.1 Types of Cost	1055
	23.7.4.2 Balancing Costs and Benefits	1055
	23.7.5 Involving Stakeholders	1056
	23.7.6 Managing Uncertainties	1056
	23.7.6.1 Technical and Scientific Uncertainties	1056
	23.7.6.2 Decision-Making	1057
	23.7.7 Other Management Constraints and Influences	1057
	23.8 Concluding Remarks	1058
	References	1060
	24 A Stakeholder's Perspective on Contaminated Land Management	1063
	24.1 What is NICOLE and What is This Chapter About?	1064
	24.2 The Road to Sustainable Risk Based Land Management	1066
	24.3 A Strategic Approach to Contaminated Site Management: The End State Vision	1067
	24.4 Improving the Efficiency of Site Assessment	1069
	24.5 Remediation of Contaminated Sites and Waste Management	1071
	24.6 The Power of Natural Processes	1072
	24.7 Managing Megasites	1073
	24.8 Brownfields: A Blessing in Disguise?	1076
	24.9 Redeveloping Contaminated Industrial Sites: A UK Developers Perspective	1077
	24.10 A Sustainable Future?	1079
	24.10.1 Sustainable Approaches	1079
	24.10.2 Applied Sustainability -- A Case Study	1081
	24.11 Conclusions	1082
	Appendix: 10 Years of Progress: Two Road Maps to Contaminated Land Management	1083
	What is Behind Redrawing the Site Management Map?	1084
	References	1085
	25 Sustainable Brownfield Regeneration	1086
	25.1 Doing the Right Thing -- Right	1087
	25.2 What are Brownfields?	1087
	25.3 What is Regeneration?	1089
	25.4 What is Sustainable Regeneration?	1089
	25.5 Re Concepts in Regeneration	1092
	25.6 Brownfield Regeneration: A Multi Stakeholder Challenge	1093
	25.7 The CABERNET Brownfield Process Manager	1093
	Box 25.1 The CABERNET Opportunity Plan (CABERNET 2005)	1094
	25.8 International Brownfield Definitions	1095
	25.8.1 Europe Union	1095
	25.8.2 UK	1098
	Box 25.2 Extract from Parliamentary Debate on the Definition of Previously Developed Land	1099
	25.8.3 USA	1100
	25.8.4 Comparison of Brownfield Definitions	1101
	25.9 Typologies of Brownfield Sites	1103
	25.9.1 Economic	1103
	25.9.2 Temporal	1104
	25.10 Sustainable Regeneration	1105
	25.11 The Need for Vision	1106
	25.12 Applying a Systems Analysis Approach to Brownfield Redevelopment	1108
	25.13 Opportunities for Synergy (e.g. Carbon, Energy and Waste Management)	1108
	25.14 Future Perspectives	1108
	Box 25.3 Failed Vision Creates Brownfields	1109
	References	1110
	Index	1112