Foreword	5
	Preface	7
	Contents	9
	Chapter 1: The Evolution of Modern Medicine: Garden to Pill Box	11
	1.1 Introduction	11
	1.2 Types of Drugs	12
	1.2.1 Cardiovascular Drugs	12
	1.2.1.1 Atropine	12
	1.2.1.2 Digoxin	13
	1.2.1.3 Warfarin	14
	1.2.2 Oncologic Drugs	15
	1.2.2.1 Paclitaxel	15
	1.2.2.2 Vinblastine	16
	1.2.2.3 Etoposide	17
	1.2.3 Neurologic Drugs	18
	1.2.3.1 Scopolamine	18
	1.2.3.2 Levodopa (l-Dopa)	19
	1.2.4 Pain Suppressants	20
	1.2.4.1 Aspirin	20
	1.2.4.2 Morphine	21
	1.2.4.3 Menthol	22
	1.3 Conclusion	23
	References	23
	Chapter 2: Bioprospecting for Pharmaceuticals: An Overview and Vision for Future Access and Benefit Sharing	27
	2.1 Introduction	27
	2.2 Plants in Drug Discovery	27
	2.2.1 The Story of Paclitaxel	28
	2.2.2 Structure-Activity Relationship Studies	29
	2.2.3 Ethnobotanical Approach to Drug Discovery	30
	2.3 Framework for Managing Intellectual Property	30
	2.3.1 Protecting Intellectual Property of Researchers: Patenting of Natural Products	31
	2.3.2 Protecting Intellectual Property of Local Communities and Biodiversity	32
	2.3.3 Organizational Regulations	32
	2.3.4 Managing Expectations	33
	2.4 Challenges in Bioprospecting	33
	2.4.1 Biopiracy	34
	2.4.2 Conservation	35
	2.4.3 Sharing of Intellectual Property	35
	2.4.4 Access to Resources	36
	2.5 Future Directions in Bioprospecting	36
	2.5.1 Access and Benefit Sharing	37
	2.5.2 The Role of Ethnobotanists	38
	2.5.3 A Vision for an Interdisciplinary Bioprospecting Strategy	39
	2.6 Conclusion	41
	References	41
	Chapter 3: Nepal: A Global Hotspot for Medicinal Orchids	45
	3.1 Introduction	45
	3.1.1 General Botany	48
	3.1.2 Why Orchids of Nepal?	48
	3.2 Orchids in Written History	49
	3.3 Orchid in Mythologies and Mysteries in Various Cultures	49
	3.4 Etymology and Origin of Word for Orchid in English and Nepali	50
	3.5 Flowering Plants and Orchids in Nepal	50
	3.6 Early Botanical Expeditions and Work on Orchid in Nepal	51
	3.7 Ethnobotany and Medicinal Orchids of Nepal	52
	3.8 Orchids Are More than Medicine	53
	3.9 Traditional Medical Systems in Nepal	54
	3.10 Current Research Based on Traditional Knowledge	57
	3.10.1 Anticancer Properties	77
	3.11 Threats to Medicinal Orchids in Natural Habitats	80
	3.12 Conservation Strategy, Sustainable Production and Cultivation	82
	3.13 Conclusions	83
	References	83
	Chapter 4: Current Status and Future Prospects for Select Underutilized Medicinally Valuable Plants of Puerto Rico: A Case Study	91
	4.1 Introduction	91
	4.2 Geography, Climate, and Vegetation	93
	4.3 Anthropogenic Factors	100
	4.3.1 Destruction of Natural Habitats	100
	4.3.2 Encroachment	101
	4.3.3 Siltation of Water Bodies	102
	4.3.4 Uncontrolled Deforestation	102
	4.3.5 Overgrazing	103
	4.3.6 Shift in People’s Interest from Ancient to Modern Medicine	103
	4.3.7 Natural Factors	103
	4.4 In Situ Conservation	106
	4.5 Information and Assessment	107
	4.6 Species Management Plans	107
	4.7 Ex Situ Conservation	108
	4.8 Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) and Organic Farming	108
	4.9 Sustainable Use of Underutilized Medicinal Plants	109
	4.10 Micropropagation: Synthetic Seeds and Somatic Embryogenesis	109
	4.11 Conversation Through Cryopreservation	110
	4.12 Study of Reproductive Biology of Underutilized Plants	111
	4.13 Development of Suitable Propagation Methods	112
	4.14 Application of Conventional Breeding Techniques	112
	4.15 Genetic Transformation of Medicinal Plants	113
	4.16 Pathway Engineering in Medicinal Plants	114
	4.17 Improving Agronomic Traits in Medicinal Plants	114
	4.18 Identification of Disease and Pests and Development of Management Strategies	114
	4.19 Establishment of Facilities for Processing and Marketing of Products	115
	References	116
	Chapter 5: Black Pepper: Health Benefits, In Vitro Multiplication, and Commercial Cultivation	121
	5.1 Introduction	121
	5.2 Black Pepper: Health Benefits	123
	5.2.1 Digestion	124
	5.2.2 Respiratory Conditions	124
	5.2.3 Skincare	124
	5.2.4 Cancer	124
	5.2.5 Diabetes	125
	5.2.6 Alzheimer’s Disease	125
	5.2.7 Blood Pressure	125
	5.2.8 Obesity	125
	5.3 Black Pepper: In Vitro Multiplication	126
	5.3.1 Plant Material	126
	5.3.2 Culture Medium	126
	5.3.3 Micropropagation	126
	5.3.4 Rooting	127
	5.3.5 Acclimatization	128
	5.3.6 Statistical Analysis	128
	5.4 Black Pepper: Commercial Cultivation	129
	5.4.1 Climatic Conditions	130
	5.4.2 Soil Characteristics	130
	5.4.3 Field Preparation	130
	5.4.4 Preparation of Planting Materials	130
	5.4.5 Standards and Planting	131
	5.4.6 Pruning	131
	5.4.7 Irrigation	131
	5.4.8 Fertilizer Application	132
	5.4.9 Weed Control	133
	5.4.10 Insect Pests and Diseases	133
	5.4.11 Harvesting	134
	5.4.12 Processing, Drying, and Storage	134
	5.4.13 Texture and Color	134
	5.4.13.1 Green Pepper	134
	5.4.13.2 Black Pepper	134
	5.4.13.3 White Pepper	135
	References	135
	Chapter 6: Prospects for Goji Berry (Lycium barbarum L.) Production in North America	138
	6.1 Introduction	138
	6.2 Origin and Uses	139
	6.3 Botany and Distribution	139
	6.4 Commercial Production	143
	6.5 Propagation	144
	6.6 Medicinal Uses	145
	References	147
	Chapter 7: Skullcaps (Scutellaria spp.): Ethnobotany and Current Research	150
	7.1 Introduction	150
	7.2 Scutellaria in Various Traditional Medical Systems	152
	7.2.1 Native Americans	153
	7.2.2 Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM)	154
	7.2.3 Japanese Kampo	157
	7.2.4 Traditional Korean Medicine (TKM)	157
	7.2.5 Nepali Traditional Medicine	158
	7.2.6 Indian Traditional Medicine (ITM)	159
	7.2.7 Traditional Iranian and Central Asia Medicine (TICAM) Systems	159
	7.2.8 South American Medicine (SAM) Systems	160
	7.3 Physical Nature of Traditional Medicine Formulations	160
	7.4 Bioactive Compounds	163
	7.5 Trichomes in Scutellaria	166
	7.6 Nonhuman Application of Medicinal Scutellaria Species	166
	7.6.1 Far Eastern Catfish (Silurus asotus)	166
	7.6.2 Olive Flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus)	167
	7.6.3 Poultry	167
	7.6.4 Pork	168
	7.6.5 Cattle	168
	7.6.6 Kimchi	168
	7.7 Threats to Scutellaria Populations	169
	7.7.1 Seed Set	169
	7.7.2 Adulteration	169
	7.8 Conclusion	170
	References	171
	Chapter 8: Cultivating Research Grade Cannabis for the Development of Phytopharmaceuticals	178
	8.1 Introduction	178
	8.2 The Plant Cannabis	180
	8.3 Chemical Constituents of Cannabis sativa	181
	8.4 Cannabis Biosynthesis	182
	8.5 Biomass Production	187
	8.6 Indoor Cultivation	187
	8.7 Outdoor Cultivation	190
	8.8 Harvesting	191
	8.9 Postharvest Handling	191
	8.10 Extraction of Cannabinoids	191
	8.11 Cannabis: A Natural Candidate for Botanical Drug Development	192
	References	193
	Chapter 9: Natural Products as Possible Vaccine Adjuvants for Infectious Diseases and Cancer	196
	9.1 A Short History of Vaccines and their Mechanism of Action	196
	9.2 Vaccines Currently in Use	198
	9.3 Vaccine Adjuvants: A History and their Mechanism of Action	199
	9.4 Vaccine Adjuvants: Delivery Systems Vs. Immunostimulators	199
	9.4.1 Formation of Depot at the Site of Infection (Depot Effect)	201
	9.4.2 Upregulation of Cytokines and Chemokines	201
	9.4.3 Antigen Presentation and Activation/Maturation of Dendritic Cells	201
	9.4.4 Activation of Inflammasomes	202
	9.5 An Ideal Vaccine Adjuvant	203
	9.6 Adjuvants in Clinical Trials, Licenced Out and in the Pipeline	204
	9.7 Hurdles Facing the Development of Vaccine Adjuvants	204
	9.8 Natural Vaccine Adjuvants	208
	9.9 Current Herbals and Compounds Used for Vaccine Adjuvants	209
	9.10 Natural Products as Adjuvants	210
	9.10.1 Immunostimulating Herbals as Vaccine Adjuvants	210
	9.10.2 TLR Agonists and Ligands	212
	9.10.3 Plant Proteins, Polysaccharides and Fungi as Vaccine Adjuvants	213
	9.11 Adjuvants Specific for Cancer Therapy (The Desired Properties)	214
	9.12 Adjuvants Specific for Infectious Diseases (The Desired Properties)	214
	9.13 Future Prospects for Natural Products as Adjuvants for Vaccines	214
	References	216
	Chapter 10: In Vitro Plant Cell Cultures: A Route to Production of Natural Molecules and Systematic In Vitro Assays for their Biological Properties	223
	10.1 Introduction	223
	10.2 Significance of In Vitro Cultures	225
	10.3 Establishment of In Vitro Plant Cell Cultures	225
	10.3.1 Micropropagation	225
	10.3.2 Callus Cultures	226
	10.3.3 Cell Suspension Culture	227
	10.4 Plant Secondary Metabolites	227
	10.4.1 Chemical Classes of Secondary Metabolites	227
	10.4.1.1 Terpenes	227
	10.4.1.2 Phenolic Compounds	228
	10.4.1.3 Nitrogenous Compounds	228
	10.4.2 Quantification of Secondary Metabolites	229
	10.5 Strategies to Enhance Secondary Metabolite Production	229
	10.5.1 Optimization of Metabolite Synthesis by Culture Conditions	229
	10.5.2 Selection of High Metabolite-Yielding Tissues	230
	10.5.3 Precursor Feeding and Biotransformation	230
	10.5.4 Elicitation and Stress-Induced Production	230
	10.5.5 Agrobacterium-Mediated Transformation	231
	10.5.6 Scale-Up in Bioreactor	231
	10.6 In Vitro Methods for Assessment of Biological Properties	232
	10.6.1 Antibacterial Activity	232
	10.6.1.1 Diffusion Methods	232
	10.6.1.2 Dilution Methods	234
	10.6.1.3 Antimicrobial Gradient Method (E-test)	234
	10.6.1.4 TLC Bioautography	236
	10.6.1.5 Time Kill Test	236
	10.6.1.6 ATP Bioluminescence Assay	236
	10.6.1.7 Flow Cytofluorometric Method	237
	10.6.2 Antidiabetic Activity	237
	10.6.2.1 ?-Amylase Inhibition Assay	237
	10.6.2.2 Glucose Diffusion Inhibitory Assay	237
	10.6.3 Antioxidant Activity	238
	10.6.3.1 1,1-Diphenyl-2-Picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) Assay	238
	10.6.3.2 Superoxide Anion Radical Scavenging (SO) Assay	238
	10.6.3.3 Xanthine Oxidase (XO) Method	240
	10.6.3.4 Hydrogen Peroxide Radical Scavenging (H2O2) Assay	240
	10.6.3.5 Nitric Oxide (NO) Assay	240
	10.6.3.6 Hydroxyl Radical Scavenging (HO) Assay	241
	10.6.3.7 Oxygen Radical Absorbance Capacity (ORAC) Assay	241
	10.6.3.8 Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power (FRAP) Assay	241
	10.6.4 Anticancer Activity	242
	10.6.4.1 MTT (3-[4,5-Dimethylthiazole-2-yl]-2,5-Diphenyltetrazolium Bromide) Assay	242
	10.6.4.2 XTT (2,3-Bis[2-Methoxy-4-Nitro-5-Sulfophenyl]-2H Tetrazolium-5-Carboxyanilide Inner Salt) Assay	242
	10.6.4.3 MTS (3-(4,5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-5-(3-Carboxymethoxyphenyl)-2-(4-Sulfophenyl)-2H-Tetrazolium) Assay	243
	10.6.4.4 Trypan Blue Dye Exclusion Assay	243
	10.6.4.5 Resazurin Cell Growth Inhibition Assay	243
	10.6.5 Anthelmintic Activity	243
	10.6.6 Schizonticidal Activity	245
	10.7 Conclusion and Future Prospects	245
	References	245
	Chapter 11: Antioxidant, Antimicrobial, Analgesic, Anti-inflammatory and Antipyretic Effects of Bioactive Compounds from Passiflora Species	250
	11.1 Introduction	250
	11.2 Biodiversity and Taxonomy of Genus Passiflora	252
	11.3 Ethnopharmacology	253
	11.4 Pharmacological Activities	255
	11.4.1 Antioxidant	255
	11.4.2 Antimicrobial	260
	11.4.3 Analgesic	262
	11.4.4 Anti-inflammatory	263
	11.4.5 Antipyretic	266
	11.5 Bioactive Compounds	267
	11.6 Conclusion	269
	References	275
	Chapter 12: Modulation of Tumor Immunity by Medicinal Plant or Functional Food-Derived Compounds	282
	12.1 Introduction	282
	12.2 An Introduction to Natural Compounds	283
	12.3 Innate Immune Components of Anti- or Pro-tumor Inflammation	284
	12.4 The Important Roles of CD4+ T-Helper and Treg Cells	287
	12.5 TNF-? and NF-?B	289
	12.6 Natural Compounds, a Plausible Alternative	290
	12.7 Conclusion	293
	References	294
	Chapter 13: Dietary Brown Seaweed Extract Supplementation in Small Ruminants	298
	13.1 Introduction	298
	13.2 Taxonomy of Brown Seaweed and History of Use in Livestock	299
	13.3 Nutritional Value of Brown Seaweed	301
	13.4 Effects of Brown Seaweed Extract in Livestock	302
	13.4.1 Stress Responses	302
	13.4.2 Antioxidant Activity	304
	13.4.3 Immune Function	306
	13.4.4 Rumen Metabolism	307
	13.4.5 Gut Microbial Population and Food Safety	309
	13.4.6 Body Composition	310
	13.4.7 Carcass and Meat Quality Characteristics	312
	13.5 Perceived Downsides of Brown Seaweed Usage	314
	13.6 Conclusions	315
	References	315
	Chapter 14: Discovery of Green Tea Polyphenol-Based Antitumor Drugs: Mechanisms of Action and Clinical Implications	320
	14.1 Introduction	320
	14.2 Green Tea, EGCG, and Cancer	322
	14.2.1 EGCG as a Chemopreventative	323
	14.2.2 EGCG Can Target Multiple Molecular Signaling Pathways Required for Cancer Cell Survival	325
	14.2.3 EGCG as a Tumor 20S Proteasome Inhibitor	326
	14.2.4 Development of Pro-EGCG to Improve EGCG’s Stability, Bioavailability, and Activity	328
	14.2.5 Novel EGCG Analogs Resistant to COMT-Mediated Methylation and Inhibition	329
	14.3 Activities of EGCG Prodrugs and Analogs in Uterine Fibroids	330
	14.3.1 Pro-EGCG and Its Analogs	331
	14.3.2 Compounds 4 and 6	332
	14.4 Conclusions	335
	References	337
	Chapter 15: Therapeutic and Medicinal Uses of Terpenes	340
	15.1 Introduction	340
	15.1.1 What Are Terpenes?	340
	15.1.2 Plants that Carry Medicinal Terpene	341
	15.1.3 Properties Associated with Terpene	342
	15.1.3.1 Anti-insect	342
	15.1.3.2 Antimicrobial	343
	15.1.4 Monoterpenes	344
	15.1.5 Monoterpene Emission Under Heat Stress	344
	15.1.6 Sesquiterpenes	345
	15.1.7 Diterpenes	346
	15.1.8 Triterpenes	347
	15.1.9 Tetraterpenes	348
	15.1.10 MEP Pathway	348
	15.1.11 MVA Pathway	349
	15.1.12 Cannabis	349
	15.1.13 Antiplasmodial Activity	350
	15.1.14 Antiviral Activity	351
	15.1.15 Anticancer	353
	15.1.16 Antidiabetic	354
	15.1.17 Antidepressant	355
	15.1.18 Uses in Folk Medicine	357
	References	362
	Chapter 16: Unexplored Medicinal Flora Hidden Within South Africa’s Wetlands	367
	16.1 Introduction	367
	16.2 South African Wetlands	368
	16.3 The Types of Plants Found Within Wetlands	369
	16.3.1 Emergent	369
	16.3.2 Submerged	369
	16.3.3 Floating	370
	16.3.4 Riparian and Marginal	370
	16.4 Potential Medicinal Properties of Aquatic and Wetland Plants	370
	16.5 Conclusion	373
	References	399
	Chapter 17: Sea Buckthorn: A Multipurpose Medicinal Plant from Upper Himalayas	405
	17.1 Introduction	405
	17.2 Classification	406
	17.2.1 Taxonomic Status of the Genus	407
	17.3 Origin and Distribution	408
	17.3.1 Jammu and Kashmir	408
	17.3.2 Uttarakhand	409
	17.3.3 Himachal Pradesh	410
	17.3.4 Sikkim	410
	17.4 Cultivation Practices	410
	17.4.1 Soil	410
	17.4.2 Irrigation	411
	17.4.3 Manure and Fertilizer	411
	17.4.4 Propagation	411
	17.4.5 Grafting	412
	17.4.6 Nursery Management	412
	17.4.7 Orchard Establishment	412
	17.4.8 Pruning	413
	17.4.9 Cultivars	413
	17.4.10 Fruit Harvesting (Gupta and Singh 2003)	414
	17.4.10.1 Hand Picking	414
	17.4.10.2 Beat the Bush	414
	17.4.10.3 Cutting of Branch	414
	17.4.10.4 Jaw-Tooth and Brush Harvester	414
	17.4.10.5 Fruit Comb	414
	17.4.10.6 Use of Bioregulators	415
	17.4.10.7 Trunk and Branch Shaker	415
	17.4.11 Leaf Harvesting (Mann et al. 2003)	415
	17.4.11.1 Hand Held Prototype	415
	17.4.11.2 Trailer-Mounted Prototype	415
	17.4.12 Yield	416
	17.4.13 Insect, Pests and Diseases	416
	17.5 Postharvest Handling and Storage	417
	17.5.1 Juice Extraction and Storage	417
	17.5.2 Oil Extraction	418
	17.5.3 Pigment Extraction	418
	17.6 Nutritional Attributes	418
	17.6.1 Berry Pulp/Juice	419
	17.6.1.1 Moisture and TSS	420
	17.6.1.2 Vitamins	420
	17.6.1.3 Mineral Elements	421
	17.6.2 Seeds	421
	17.6.3 Leaves	421
	17.6.4 Bark	422
	17.6.5 Sea Buckthorn Oil	422
	17.7 Traditional Uses	423
	17.8 Socio-economic Benefits	424
	17.8.1 Collection and Trading in Ladakh	425
	17.9 Ecological Impact	426
	17.9.1 Nitrogen Fixation	426
	17.9.2 Desertification Control	427
	17.9.3 Soil and Moisture Conservation	427
	17.9.4 Fencing and Windbreaks	428
	17.9.5 Firewood	428
	17.9.6 Wildlife Habitats	428
	17.9.7 Improvement of Microclimate (Tan et al. 1994	429
	17.9.7.1 Solar Radiation	429
	17.9.7.2 Soil Temperature	429
	17.9.7.3 Relative Humidity	429
	17.9.7.4 Evaporation	429
	17.9.7.5 Wind Velocity	429
	17.9.8 Improvement of Soil Physical Properties (Tan et al. 1994)	430
	References	430
	Index	433