Title Page	2
	Preface	5
	Contents	7
	Prologue on ideal gases and incompressible fluids	17
	Thermal and caloric equations of state	17
	“mol”	18
	On the history of the equations of state	19
	An elementary kinetic view of the equations of state for ideal gases	20
	Objectives of thermodynamics and its equations of balance	23
	Fields of mechanics and thermodynamics	23
	{\it Mass density, velocity, and temperature}	23
	{\it History of temperature}	23
	Equations of balance	25
	{\it Conservation laws of thermodynamics}	25
	{\it Generic equations of balance for closed and open systems}	25
	{\it Generic local equation of balance in regular points}	26
	Balance of mass	27
	{\it Integral and local balance equations of mass}	27
	{\it Mass balance and nozzle flow}	27
	Balance of momentum	28
	{\it Integral and local balance equations of momentum}	28
	{\it Pressure}	30
	{\it Pressure in an incompressible fluid at rest}	30
	{\it History of pressure and pressure units}	31
	{\it Applications of the momentum balance}	32
	Balance of energy	42
	{\it Kinetic energy, potential energy, and four types of internal energy}	42
	{\it Integral and local equations of balance of energy}	45
	{\it Potential energy}	47
	{\it Balance of internal energy}	48
	{\it Short form of energy balance for closed systems}	49
	{\it First Law for reversible processes. The basis of “pdV - thermodynamics”}	50
	{\it Enthalpy and First Law for stationary flow processes}	50
	{\it “Adiabatic equation of state” for an ideal gas – an integral of the energy balance}	52
	{\it Applications of the energy balance}	53
	History of the First Law	69
	Summary of equations of balance	71
	Constitutive equations	72
	On measuring constitutive functions	72
	{\it The need for constitutive equations}	72
	{\it Constitutive equations for viscous, heat-conducting fluids, vapors, and gas}	72
	Determination of viscosity and thermal conductivity	74
	{\it Shear flow between parallel plates. Newton’s law of friction}	74
	{\it Heat conduction through a window-pane}	76
	Measuring the state functions $p(v,T)$ and $u(v ,T)$	78
	{\it The need for measurements}	78
	{\it Thermal equations of state}	78
	{\it Caloric equation of state}	79
	{\it Equations of state for air and superheated steam}	81
	{\it Equations of state for liquid water}	82
	State diagrams for fluids and vapors with a phase transition	83
	{\it The phenomenon of a liquid-vapor phase transition}	83
	{\it Melting and sublimation}	85
	{\it Saturated vapor curve of water}	85
	{\it On the anomaly of water}	88
	{\it Wet region and ( p,v) -diagram of water}	90
	{\it 3D phase diagram}	90
	{\it Heat of evaporation and (h,T)–diagram of water}	91
	{\it Applications of saturated steam}	92
	{\it Van der Waals equation}	94
	{\it On the history of liquefying gases and solidifying liquids}	96
	Reversible processes and cycles. “$p$ d$V$ thermodynamics” for the calculation of thermodynamic engines	98
	Work and heat for reversible processes	98
	Compressor and pneumatic machine. The hot air engine	99
	{\it Work needed for the operation of a compressor}	99
	{\it Two-stage compressor}	101
	{\it Pneumatic machine}	101
	{\it Hot air engine}	102
	Work and heat for reversible processes in ideal gases. “Iso-processes” and adiabatic processes	103
	Cycles	104
	{\it Efficiency in the conversion of heat to work}	104
	{\it Efficiencies of special cycles}	105
	Internal combustion cycles	111
	{\it Otto cycle}	111
	{\it Diesel cycle}	114
	{\it On the history of the internal combustion engine}	116
	Gas turbine	117
	{\it Brayton process}	117
	{\it Jet propulsion process}	118
	{\it Turbofan engine}	119
	Entropy	120
	The Second Law of thermodynamics	120
	{\it Formulation and exploitation}	120
	{\it Summary}	126
	Exploitation of the Second Law	128
	{\it Integrability condition}	128
	{\it Internal energy and entropy of a van der Waals gas and of an ideal gas}	129
	{\it Alternatives of the Gibbs equation and its integrability conditions}	130
	{\it Phase equilibrium. Clausius-Clapeyron equation}	132
	{\it Phase equilibrium in a van der Waals gas}	134
	{\it Temperature change during adiabatic throttling Example: Van der Waals gas}	135
	{\it Available free energies}	138
	{\it Stability conditions}	140
	{\it Specific heat cp is singular at the critical point}	141
	A layer of liquid heated from below – onset of convection	142
	On the history of the Second Law	146
	Entropy as $S=k lnW$	149
	Molecular interpretation of entropy	149
	Entropy of a gas and of a polymer molecule	149
	Entropy as a measure of disorder	153
	Maxwell distribution	154
	Entropy of a rubber rod	155
	Examples for entropy and Second Law. Gas and rubber	157
	{\it Gibbs equation and integrability condition for liquids and solids}	157
	{\it Examples for entropic elasticity}	159
	{\it Real gases and crystallizing rubber}	160
	{\it Free energy of gases and rubber. (p,V)- and(P, L)-curves.}	162
	{\it Reversible and hysteretic phase transitions}	164
	History of the molecular interpretation of entropy	165
	Steam engines and refrigerators	167
	The history of the steam engine	167
	Steam engines	169
	{\it The (T,S)-diagram}	169
	{\it Clausius-Rankine process. The essential role of enthalpy}	169
	{\it Clausius-Rankine process in a (T, S)-diagram}	171
	{\it The (h, s)-diagram}	173
	{\it Steam flow rate and efficiency of a power station}	175
	{\it Carnotization}	176
	{\it Mercury-water binary vapor cycle}	177
	{\it Combined gas-vapor cycle}	178
	Refrigerator and heat pump	178
	{\it Compression refrigerator}	178
	{\it Calculation for a cold storage room}	179
	{\it Absorption refrigerator}	180
	{\it Refrigerants}	181
	{\it Heat pump}	182
	Heat Transfer	184
	Non-Stationary Heat Conduction	184
	{\it The heat conduction equation}	184
	{\it Separation of variables}	184
	{\it Examples of heat conduction}	185
	{\it On the history of non-stationary heat conduction}	192
	Heat Exchangers	192
	{\it Heat transport coefficients and heat transfer coefficient}	192
	{\it Temperature gradients in the flow direction}	194
	{\it Temperatures along the heat exchanger}	195
	Radiation	197
	{\it Coefficients of spectral emission and absorption}	197
	{\it Kirchhoff’s law}	199
	{\it Averaged emission coefficient and averaged absorption number}	200
	{\it Examples of thermodynamics of radiation}	203
	{\it On the history of heat radiation}	206
	Utilization of Solar Energy	207
	{\it Availability}	207
	{\it Thermosiphon}	208
	{\it Green house}	209
	{\it Focusing collectors. The burning glass}	211
	Mixtures, solutions, and alloys	212
	Chemical potentials	212
	{\it Characterization of mixtures}	212
	{\it Chemical potentials. Definition and relation to Gibbs free energy}	213
	{\it Chemical potentials	214
	{\it Measuring chemical potentials}	216
	Quantities of mixing. Chemical potentials of ideal mixtures	217
	{\it Quantities of mixing}	217
	{\it Quantities of mixing of ideal gases}	219
	{\it Ideal mixtures}	220
	{\it Chemical potentials of ideal mixtures}	220
	Osmosis	221
	{\it Osmotic pressure in dilute solutions. Van’t Hoff’s law}	221
	{\it Applications of osmosis}	223
	Mixtures in different phases	229
	{\it Gibbs phase rule}	229
	{\it Degrees of freedom}	230
	Liquid-vapor equilibrium (ideal)	231
	{\it Ideal Raoult law}	231
	{\it Ideal phase diagrams for binary mixtures.}	232
	{\it Evaporation in the (p,T)-diagram}	234
	{\it Saturation pressure decrease and boiling temperature increase}	235
	Distillation, an application of Raoult’s law	236
	{\it mol as a unit}	236
	{\it Simple application of Raoult’s law}	237
	{\it Batch distillation}	237
	{\it Continuous distillation and the separating cascade}	240
	{\it Rectification column}	242
	Liquid-vapor equilibrium (real)	244
	{\it Activity and fugacity}	244
	{\it Raoult’s law for non-ideal mixtures}	245
	{\it Determination of the activity coefficient}	245
	{\it Determination of fugacity coefficients}	247
	{\it Activity coefficient and heat of mixing. Construction of a phase diagram}	247
	{\it Henry coefficient}	249
	Gibbs free energy of a binary mixture in two phases	251
	{\it Graphical determination of equilibrium states}	251
	{\it Graphical representation of chemical potentials}	254
	{\it Phase diagram with unrestricted miscibility}	254
	{\it Miscibility gap in the liquid phase}	256
	Alloys	256
	{\it ( T , c_{1}) –diagrams}	256
	{\it Solid solutions and the eutectic point}	259
	{\it Gibbs phase rule for a binary alloy}	260
	Ternary Phase Diagrams	260
	{\it Representation}	260
	{\it Miscibility gaps in ternary solutions}	261
	Chemically reacting mixtures	264
	Stoichiometry and law of mass action	264
	{\it Stoichiometry}	264
	{\it Application of stoichiometry. Respiratory quotient RQ}	266
	{\it Law of mass action}	266
	{\it Law of mass action for ideal mixtures and mixtures of ideal gases}	267
	{\it On the history of the law of mass action}	268
	{\it Examples for the law of mass action for ideal gases}	269
	{\it Equilibrium in stoichiometric mixtures of ideal gases}	271
	Heats of reaction, entropies of reaction, and absolute values of entropies	273
	{\it The additive constants in u and s}	273
	{\it Heats of reaction}	275
	{\it Entropies of reaction}	276
	{\it Le Chatelier’s principle of least constraint}	277
	Nernst’s heat theorem. The Third Law of thermodynamics	277
	{\it Third Law in Nernst’s formulation}	277
	{\it Application of the Third Law. The latent heat of the transformation gray $\rightarrow$ white in tin}	278
	{\it Third Law in PLANCK’s formulation}	279
	{\it Absolute values of energy and entropy}	280
	Energetic and entropic contributions to equilibrium	280
	{\it Three contributions to the Gibbs free energy}	280
	{\it Examples for minima of the Gibbs free energy}	282
	{\it On the history of the Haber-Bosch synthesis}	284
	The fuel cell	285
	Chemical Reactions	285
	{\it Various types of fuel cells}	286
	{\it Thermodynamics}	287
	{\it Effects of temperature and pressure}	289
	{\it Power of the fuel cell}	289
	{\it Efficiency of the fuel cell}	290
	Thermodynamics of photosynthesis	291
	{\it The dilemma of glucose synthesis}	291
	{\it Balance of particle numbers}	292
	{\it Balance of energy. Why a plant needs lots of water}	293
	{\it Balance of entropy. Why a plant needs air}	295
	{\it Discussion}	296
	Moist air	298
	Characterization of moist air	298
	{\it Moisture content}	298
	{\it Enthalpy of moist air}	298
	{\it Table for moist air}	299
	{\it The ($h_{1+x}$ , x)-diagram}	301
	Simple processes in moist air	302
	{\it Supply of water}	302
	{\it Heating}	303
	{\it Mixing}	303
	{\it Mixing of moist air with fog}	304
	Evaporation limit and cooling limit	304
	{\it Mass balance and evaporation limit}	304
	{\it Energy balance and cooling limit}	305
	Two Instructive Examples: Sauna and Cloud Base	307
	{\it A sauna is prepared}	307
	{\it Cloud base}	308
	Rules of thumb	310
	{\it Alternative measures of moisture}	310
	{\it Dry adiabatic temperature gradient}	311
	Pressure of saturated vapor in the presence of air	312
	Selected problems in thermodynamics	314
	Droplets and bubbles	314
	{\it Available free energy}	314
	{\it Necessary and sufficient conditions for equilibrium}	315
	{\it Available free energy as a function of radius}	315
	{\it Nucleation barrier for droplets}	317
	{\it Nucleation barrier for bubbles}	318
	{\it Discussion}	319
	Fog and clouds. Droplets in moist air	319
	{\it Problem}	319
	{\it Available free energy. Equilibrium conditions}	320
	{\it Water vapor pressure in phase equilibrium}	321
	{\it The form of the available free energy}	321
	{\it Nucleation barrier and droplet radius}	324
	Rubber balloons	325
	{\it Pressure-radius relation}	325
	{\it Stability of a balloon}	328
	{\it A suggestive argument for the stability of a balloon}	330
	{\it Equilibria between interconnected balloons}	333
	Sound	335
	{\it Wave equation}	335
	{\it Solution of the wave equation, d’Alembert method}	338
	{\it Plane harmonic waves}	339
	{\it Plane harmonic sound waves}	340
	Landau theory of phase transitions	342
	{\it Free energy and load as functions of temperature and strain: Phase transitions of first and second order}	342
	{\it Phase transitions of first order}	342
	{\it Phase transitions of second order}	345
	{\it Phase transitions under load}	347
	{\it A remark on the classification of phase transitions}	347
	Swelling and shrinking of gels	348
	{\it Phenomenon}	348
	{\it Gibbs free energy}	350
	{\it Swelling and shrinking as function of temperature}	353
	Thermodynamics of irreversible processes	356
	Single fluids	356
	{\it The laws of FOURIER and NAVIER-STOKES}	356
	{\it Shear flow and heat conduction between parallel plates}	358
	{\it Absorption and dispersion of sound}	360
	{\it Eshelby tensor}	362
	Mixtures of Fluids	364
	{\it The laws of Fourier, Fick, and Navier-Stokes}	364
	{\it Diffusion coefficient and diffusion equation}	367
	{\it Stationary heat conduction coupled with diffusion and chemical reaction}	369
	Flames	371
	{\it Chapman-Jouguet equations}	371
	{\it Detonations and flames}	373
	{\it Equations of balance inside the flame}	374
	{\it Dimensionless equations}	376
	{\it Solutions}	377
	{\it On the precarious nature of a flame}	379
	A model for linear visco-elasticity	379
	{\it Internal variable}	379
	{\it Rheological equation of state}	381
	{\it Creep and stress relaxation}	382
	{\it Stability conditions}	384
	{\it Irreversibility of creep}	384
	{\it Frequency-dependent elastic modulus and the complex elastic modulus}	386
	Shape memory alloys	387
	{\it Phenomena and applications}	387
	{\it A model for shape memory alloys}	391
	{\it Entropic stabilization}	392
	{\it Pseudoelasticity}	395
	{\it Latent heat}	398
	{\it Kinetic theory of shape memory}	400
	{\it Molecular dynamics}	404
	Name and subject index	407