Preface	4
	References	6
	Contents	7
	Contributors	9
	1 Morphing Structures in the Venus Flytrap	12
	Abstract	12
	1.1…Introduction	12
	1.2…Anatomy and Mechanics of the Trap	15
	1.3…The Hydroelastic Curvature Model of Venus Flytrap	16
	1.4…Comparison with Experiment	21
	1.5…Interrogating Consecutive Stages of Trap Closing	23
	1.6…Electrical Memory in Venus Flytrap	28
	1.7…Complete Hunting Cycle of the Venus Flytrap	34
	Acknowledgment	40
	References	40
	2 The Effect of Electrical Signals on Photosynthesis and Respiration	43
	Abstract	43
	2.1…Introduction	44
	2.2…Methodology and Experimental Setup	45
	2.2.1 Gas Exchange Measurements	45
	2.2.2 Chlorophyll Fluorescence Measurements	47
	2.2.3 Polarographic O2 Measurements	51
	2.3…Effect of APs on Photosynthesis	51
	2.3.1 Chara cells	51
	2.3.2 Carnivorous Plant Venus Flytrap (D. muscipula)	53
	2.3.3 Mimosa Pudica	56
	2.3.4 Other Plant Species	57
	2.4…Effect of VPs on Photosynthesis	59
	2.4.1 Mimosa Pudica	60
	2.4.2 Other Plant Species	61
	2.5…Possible Mechanism Underlying Photosynthetic Limitation upon Impact of Electrical Signals	63
	2.6…Effect of Electrical Signalling on Respiration	65
	2.7…Conclusions	66
	Acknowledgments	67
	References	67
	3 Mathematical Modeling, Dynamics Analysis and Control of Carnivorous Plants	73
	Abstract	73
	3.1…Introduction	74
	3.2…Mathematical Modeling	78
	3.2.1 Double-Trigger Process	79
	3.2.2 Water Kinetics	80
	3.2.2.1 Capture Process: (From the Open to the Semi-Closed State)	83
	3.2.2.2 Release Process: (From the Semi-Closed to the Open State)	84
	3.2.2.3 Sealing Process: (From the Semi-Closed to the Closed State)	86
	3.2.2.4 Reopening Process: (From the Fully Closed to the Open State)	86
	3.2.3 Summary of Model	87
	3.3…Flytrap Robot	88
	3.4…Conclusions	92
	References	92
	4 The Telegraph Plant: Codariocalyx motorius (Formerly Also Desmodium gyrans)	94
	Abstract	94
	4.1…Introduction	95
	4.2…Anatomy and Physiology of the Codariocalyx Pulvinus	97
	4.2.1 Pulvinus Shape and Bending	98
	4.2.2 Pulvinus Curvature and Water Transport	100
	4.2.3 Pulvinus Water Transport	100
	4.3…Codariocalyx: Experiments on Leaflet Movements	102
	4.3.1 Background: J.C. Bose	103
	4.3.2 Leaflet Movements and Temperature	104
	4.3.3 Leaflet Movements and Mechanical Load	104
	4.3.4 Leaf Movements and Light	105
	4.4…Codariocalyx Experiments: Contributions from Electro-Physiology and Biochemistry	107
	4.4.1 Microelectrode Electrophysiology	107
	4.4.2 Ca2+ Regulation in Plant Cells	108
	4.4.3 Ca2+ and the Phosphatidyl Inositol Signalling Chain	109
	4.5…Codariocalyx Experiments: Contributions from Electromagnetic Perturbations of Rhythmic Leaflet Movements	111
	4.5.1 Interlude: Oscillations and Singularities	111
	4.5.2 Applications of Electric Currents to Pulvinus	113
	4.5.3 Static Magnetic Fields	115
	4.6…The ‘‘Heart of the Matter’’: Modelling the Pulvinus Tissue	116
	4.6.1 Diffusion Coupling	117
	4.6.2 Modelling Ca2+ Oscillations Applied to Leaflet Oscillations	118
	4.6.3 From Concentration Variations to Movements	119
	4.7…Discussion	119
	4.7.1 Experimental	122
	4.7.2 Experimental: Electrophysiology	123
	4.7.3 Systems Approach and Modelling	124
	References	126
	5 Regulatory Mechanism of Plant Nyctinastic Movement: An Ion Channel-Related Plant Behavior	133
	Abstract	133
	5.1…Ion Channel-Related Regulatory Mechanism on Plant Nyctinastic Movement	133
	5.2…Chemical Studies on Nyctinastic Leaf Movement	137
	Leaf Opening and Closing Substances in Nyctinastic Plants	139
	Bioorganic Studies of Nyctinasty Using Functionalized Leaf Movement Factors as Molecular Probes: Fluorescence Studies on Nyctinasty	139
	Cell-Shrinking in the Protoplast of Motor Cell in S. saman	143
	Potassium Fluxes in Motor Cell Protoplast in S. saman	144
	Differences Between Jasmonic Acid Glycocide and Jasmonic Acid Signaling	145
	References	146
	6 Signal Transduction in Plant--Insect Interactions: From Membrane Potential Variations to Metabolomics	151
	Abstract	151
	6.1…Introduction	152
	6.2…Characteristics of Electric Signals During Insect Herbivory	152
	6.2.1 Action Potentials	152
	6.2.2 Variation Potentials	153
	6.3…VPs are a Common Events in Plant--Biotroph Interactions	154
	6.4…Herbivory-Induced VPs are Triggered by Calcium Ions	155
	6.4.1 Herbivory Versus Mechanical Wounding	156
	6.5…Role of Herbivore’s OS and Their Elicitors on Early Electric Signaling	157
	6.5.1 Herbivore-Associated Elicitors	158
	6.5.2 Alamethicin, HAE, and OS Exhibit Ion Channel Forming Activities	159
	6.6…Electric Signals Trigger Cascade of Events Leading to Gene Expression	160
	6.7…Proteomic Responses to Herbivory	167
	6.8…Electrical Signal Ultimate Target: The Induction of Metabolic Responses	170
	6.9…Concluding Remarks	174
	References	174
	7 Phytosensors and Phytoactuators	181
	Abstract	181
	7.1…Introduction	181
	7.2…Host Tropism: Insect-Induced Electrochemical Signals in Plants	185
	7.3…Phototropism and Heliotropism: Molecular Recognition of the Direction of Light by Plants	185
	7.4…Thigmotropism: Mechanosensation in Plants	189
	7.4.1 Mechanics of Petiole Movement	196
	7.5…Photoperiodism and Time Sensing: Biological Clock	198
	7.5.1 Circadian Rhythms in Electrical Circuits of Clivia miniata	198
	7.5.2 Circadian Rhythms in Electrical Circuits of Aloe vera and Mimosa pudica	203
	7.6…Plants as Phytosensors for Monitoring Atmospheric Electrochemistry: Acid Rain	204
	7.7…Chemiotropism: Electrical Signals Induced by Pesticides and Uncouplers	205
	7.8…Gravitropism in Plants	207
	7.9…Conclusion	208
	Acknowledgement	209
	References	209
	8 Generation, Transmission, and Physiological Effects of Electrical Signals in Plants	215
	Abstract	215
	8.1…Introduction	215
	8.2…Generation of Electrical Signals	217
	8.3…Transmission of Electrical Messages	217
	8.3.1 Types of Signals	218
	8.3.2 Means of Signal Transmission	219
	8.3.3 The Aphid Technique as a Tool for Measuring Electrical Signals in the Phloem	220
	8.3.4 Electrical Properties of the Phloem	222
	8.4…Physiological Effects of Electrical Signals	224
	8.4.1 Regulation of Rapid Leaf Movements	224
	8.4.2 Electrical Signaling and its Impact on Phloem Transport	224
	8.4.3 The Role of Electrical Signals in Root-to-Shoot Communication of Water-Stressed Plants	226
	8.4.4 The Role of Electrical Signalling During Fertilization	227
	8.4.5 The Role of Electrical Signalling in the Regulation of Photosynthesis	228
	8.4.6 Effects of Electrical Signals on Gene Expression	231
	8.5…Long-Distance Electrical Signaling in Woody Plants	231
	8.5.1 Membrane Potential, Electrical Signals and Growth of Willow Roots	232
	8.5.2 Electrical Properties of Wood-Producing Cells	232
	8.6…Conclusion	234
	References	235
	9 The Role of PlasmodesmataPlasmodesmata in the Electrotonic Transmission of Action PotentialAction Potentialelectrotonic transmissions	241
	Abstract	241
	9.1…Introduction	241
	9.2…The Structure of Plasmodesmata	242
	9.3…The Symplasmsymplasm as a Transport Pathway	242
	9.3.1 Evidence for Intercellular Transportintercellular transport: Tracers and Fluorescent Dyes	243
	9.3.2 Evidence for Intercellular Transport: Electrophysiology	243
	9.3.3 Plasmodesmata as a Route for Intercellular Conduction of Electric Current	244
	9.4…The Transmission of Action Potentials in Plants	247
	9.4.1 Can Transmission of the Action Potential Occur via Excitation of the Plasmodesmal Plasma Membrane?	247
	9.4.2 Can the Local External Current Generated by an Action Potential in One Cell Produce a Depolarization in the Neighboring Cell Sufficient to Trigger a Separate Action Potential?	248
	9.4.3 Are Chemicals Involved in Intercellular Transmission of Action Potentials?	249
	9.4.4 Is Propagation from Cell-to-Cell Electrotonic due to Flow of Current Between Cells via Plasmodesmata in the Absence of Excitation of the Plasma Membrane Within the Plasmodesmal Pore?	250
	9.5…Conclusions	251
	References	252
	10 Moon and Cosmos: Plant Growth and Plant Bioelectricity	256
	Abstract	256
	10.1…Introduction	257
	10.2…The Early Work of Harold Saxton Burr	259
	10.3…Methodology	261
	10.4…Bioelectricity in the Context of Lunar Parameters	263
	10.4.1 Daily Oscillations of EPD	263
	10.4.2 Monthly Oscillations of EPD	269
	10.4.3 Annual Oscillations of EPD	272
	10.5…Relationship of Bioelectric Potential and Solute Flow	273
	10.5.1 Solute Flow in Secondary Xylem	273
	10.5.2 Solute Flow in Phloem	276
	10.6…A Moon-Generated Rhythm that May Initiate Bioelectric Impulses	276
	10.7…Other Possible Regulators of Bioelectrical Patterns	278
	10.8…Discussion	281
	Acknowledgments	283
	References	283
	11 Biosystems Analysis of Plant Development Concerning Photoperiodic Flower Induction by Hydro-Electrochemicalelectrochemical Signal Transduction	288
	Abstract	288
	11.1…Introduction: Photoperiodic Flower Induction	289
	11.2…A Systems Biological Analysis of Development in (the) Higher Plants C. rubrum and C. murale	290
	11.3…The Model System Chenopodium: Induction of Flowering from Physiology to Molecular Biology	292
	11.4…Electrophysiology and Plant Behaviour	293
	11.5…Circadian Rhythms as Metabolic Bases for Hydro-Electrochemicalelectrochemical Signal Transduction	294
	11.6…Hydraulic-Electrochemicalelectrochemical Oscillations as Integrators of Cellular and Organismic Activity	297
	11.7…Local Hydraulic Signalling: The Shoot Apex in Transition	299
	11.8…Summary and Perspectives: Electrophysiology and Primary Meristems	303
	References	304
	12 Actin, Myosin VIII and ABP1 as Central Organizers of Auxin-Secreting Synapses	309
	Abstract	309
	12.1…Secretion of Auxin at Plant Synapses in Cells of Transition Zone	309
	12.2…Secretion of Auxin is Linked to Polar Transport of Calcium	310
	Box 1: Features of the PAT Implicating its Synaptic Secretory ModeBox 1: Features of the PAT Implicating its Synaptic Secretory Mode	311
	12.3…Plant Synapses are Organized by F-actin, Endocytosis, and Endocytic Vesicular Recycling	312
	12.4…Myosin VIII as Endocytic Plant Myosin	313
	12.5…PIN Polarity is Dependent on Plasma Membrane: Cell Wall and Cell-to-Cell Adhesions	313
	12.6…Plasmodesmata as Electrical Synapses	314
	12.7…ABP1 as Auxin Receptor for Electrical Responses	314
	12.8…ABP1 as Auxin Receptor for Endocytosis Feeding into Synaptic Organelle TGN/EE	315
	12.9…Evolution of Plant Synapses: From ABP1 to Synaptic Endocytosis and Vesicle Recycling	315
	12.10…Evolution of Plant Synapses: Expansion of Synaptic PINs During Plant Evolution	316
	12.11…Are Fungal Infections Related to the Opposite (Shootward) Polarity of PIN2?	317
	12.12…Did ABP1 Activity Result in Formation of the Transition Zone?	317
	12.13…Plant Synaptic Activity Emerge as Elusive Flux Sensor for the Polar Transport of Auxin	318
	12.14…Importance of Active Plant Synapses in the Transition Zone for Tropisms and Organogenesis: From Ionic and Electric Oscillations Towards Gene Expression Oscillations	319
	12.15…Conclusion	320
	References	321
	13 Ion Currents Associated with Membrane Receptors	328
	Abstract	328
	13.1…Introduction	328
	13.2…Role of Electrical Signals in Plant Development	330
	13.3…Ligand-Binding Receptors	330
	13.3.1 Types of Membrane Bound Receptors	330
	13.4…Small Signaling Peptides	331
	13.4.1 Legume-Rhizobium Symbiosis	332
	13.4.2 Pollen Tube Growth and Guidance	333
	13.4.3 Natriuretic Peptide and Salt Stress	334
	13.4.4 Pathogen and Herbivory Recognition	335
	13.4.5 Specific Signaling Molecule Perception: Two Case Studies, Systemin and Flagellin	336
	13.5…Conclusion	338
	References	339
	14 Characterisation of Root Plasma Membrane Ca2+-Permeable Cation Channels: Techniques and Basic Concepts	343
	Abstract	343
	14.1…Introduction	343
	14.2…Cation Channels in Plants	344
	14.3…What You Have to Know Before Starting Measurement	347
	14.3.1 Cation Channels Catalyse Ca2+ Influx (not Efflux)	347
	14.3.2 Isolation of Ca2+ Conductance from the Total Plasma Membrane Conductance	348
	14.3.3 Pharmacological Analysis of Ca2+-Permeable Channels	350
	14.3.4 Different Types of Root Ca2+-Permeable Cation Channels and Their Current--Voltage Relationships	350
	14.4…Electrophysiological Techniques for Studying Root Ca2+-Permeable Channels	355
	14.4.1 Measurement of Field-Potentials	355
	14.4.2 Extracellular Ion-Selective Microelectrodes	356
	14.4.3 Intracellular Techniques: Measurements of Membrane Potential with Single Sharp Microelectrode	358
	14.4.4 Intracellular Techniques: Two- and One-Microelectrode Voltage-Clamp	359
	14.4.5 Intracellular Techniques: Patch Clamp	360
	14.4.5.1 Protoplasts	360
	14.4.5.2 Patch-Clamp Pipettes	362
	14.4.5.3 Patch-Clamp Set-Up and Configurations	364
	14.4.5.4 Patch Clamp and Root Ca2+-Permeable Cation Channels	366
	14.4.5.5 Disadvantage of Patch-Clamp Technique	366
	14.4.6 Ca2+ Imaging and Aequorin Luminometry	367
	14.5…Conclusions and Perspectives	369
	References	369
	Subject Index	374