Preface	5
	Contents	6
	Introduction	12
	1 Modern Steelmaking in Electric Arc Furnaces: History and Prospects for Development	16
	1.1 General Requirements for Steelmaking Units	16
	1.1.1 Process Requirements	16
	1.1.2 Economic Requirements	17
	1.1.3 Environmental and Health and Safety Requirements	20
	1.2 High-Power Furnaces: Issues of Power Engineering	21
	1.2.1 Maximum Productivity as the Key Economic Requirement to EAF	21
	1.2.2 Increasing Power of EAF Transformers	22
	1.2.3 Specifics of Furnace Electrical Circuit	23
	1.2.4 Optimum Electrical Mode of the Heat	26
	1.2.5 DC Furnaces	28
	1.2.6 Problems of Energy Supply	28
	1.3 The Most Important Energy and Technology Innovations	29
	1.3.1 Intensive Use of Oxygen, Carbon, and Chemical Heat	29
	1.3.2 Foamed Slag Method	30
	1.3.3 Furnace Operation with Hot Heel	31
	1.3.4 Use of Hot Metal and Reduced Iron	32
	1.3.5 Single Scrap Charging	32
	1.3.6 Post-combustion of CO Above the Bath	33
	1.4 Outlook	35
	1.4.1 World Steelmaking and Mini-mills	35
	1.4.2 The Furnaces of a New Generation	35
	1.4.3 Consteel Process	37
	References	38
	2 Electric Arc Furnace as Thermoenergetical Unit	39
	2.1 Thermal Performance of Furnace: Terminology and Designations	39
	2.2 External and Internal Sources of Thermal Energy: Useful Heat	41
	2.3 Factors Limiting the Power of External Sources	42
	2.4 Key Role of Heat Transfer Processes	43
	Reference	44
	3 The Fundamental Laws and Calculating Formulae of Heat Transfer Processes	45
	3.1 Three Ways of Heat Transfer: General Concepts	45
	3.2 Conduction Heat Transfer	46
	3.2.1 Fourier--s Law. Flat Uniform Wall. Electrical--Thermal Analogy	46
	3.2.2 Coefficient of Thermal Conductivity	49
	3.2.3 Multi-layer Flat Wall	52
	3.2.4 Contact Thermal Resistance	53
	3.2.5 Uniform Cylindrical Wall	54
	3.2.6 Multi-layer Cylindrical Wall	55
	3.2.7 Simplifying of Formulae for Calculation of Cylindrical Walls	56
	3.2.8 Bodies of Complex Shape: Concept of Numerical Methods of Calculating Stationary and Non-stationary Conduction Heat Transfer	57
	3.3 Convective Heat Exchange	60
	3.3.1 Newtons Law: Coefficient of Heat Transfer	61
	3.3.2 Two Modes of Fluid Motion	61
	3.3.3 Boundary Layer	62
	3.3.4 Free (Natural) Convection	63
	3.3.5 Convective Heat Transfer at Forced Motion	64
	3.3.6 Heat Transfer Between Two Fluid Flows Through Dividing Wall	66
	3.4 Heat Radiation and Radiant Heat Exchange	70
	3.4.1 General Concepts	70
	3.4.2 Stefan--Boltzmann Law	71
	3.4.3 Heat Radiation of Gases	74
	3.4.4 Heat Exchange Between Parallel Surfaces in Transparent Medium: Effect of Screens	75
	3.4.5 Heat Exchange Between the Body and Its Envelope: Transparent Medium	76
	3.4.6 Heat Exchange Between the Emitting Gas and the Envelope	77
	4 Energy (Heat) Balances of Furnace	79
	4.1 General Concepts	79
	4.2 Heat Balances of Different Zones of the Furnace	80
	4.3 Example of Heat Balance in Modern Furnace	82
	4.4 Analysis of Separate Items of Balance Equations	83
	4.4.1 Output Items of Balance	84
	4.4.2 Input Items of Balance	86
	4.5 Chemical Energy Determination Methods	87
	4.5.1 Utilization of Material Balance Data	87
	4.5.2 About the So-Called ''Energy Equivalent'' of Oxygen	88
	4.5.3 Calculation of Thermal Effects of Chemical Reactions by Method of Total Enthalpies	89
	References	94
	5 Energy Efficiency Criteria of EAFs	95
	5.1 Preliminary Considerations	95
	5.2 Common Energy Efficiency Coefficient of EAF and Its Deficiencies	97
	5.3 Specific Coefficients for Estimation of Energy Efficiency of Separate Energy Sources and EAF as a Whole	98
	5.4 Determining Specific Coefficients	101
	5.4.1 Electrical Energy Efficiency Coefficient 0 EL	102
	5.4.2 Fuel Energy Efficiency Coefficient of Oxy-gas Burners 0 NG	103
	5.4.3 Energy Efficiency Coefficient of Coke Charged Along with Scrap	104
	5.4.4 Determining the Specific Coefficients by the Method of Inverse Heat Balances	105
	5.5 Tasks of Practical Uses of Specific Coefficients	105
	References	106
	6 Preheating of Scrap by Burners and Off-Gases	107
	6.1 Expediency of Heating	107
	6.2 Consumptions of Useful Heat for Scrap Heating, Scrap Melting, and Heating of the Melt	108
	6.3 High-Temperature Heating of Scrap	109
	6.3.1 Calculation of Potential of Electrical Energy Savings	109
	6.3.2 Sample of Realization: Process BBC--Brusa	110
	6.4 Specifics of Furnace Scrap Hampering Its Heating	111
	6.5 Processes of Heating, Limiting Factors, Heat Transfer	112
	6.5.1 Two Basic Methods of Heating	112
	6.5.2 Heating a Scrap Pile in a Large-Capacity Container	113
	6.5.3 Heating on Conveyor	116
	6.6 Devices for Heating of Scrap: Examples	119
	6.6.1 Heating in Charging Baskets	119
	6.6.2 DC Arc Furnace Danarc Plus	122
	6.6.3 Shaft Furnaces	124
	6.6.4 Twin-Shell Steelmelting Units	125
	References	127
	7 Replacement of Electric Arcs with Burners	128
	7.1 Attempts for Complete Replacement	128
	7.2 Potentialities of Existing Burners: Heat Transfer, Limiting Factors	130
	7.3 High-Power Rotary Burners (HPR-Burners)	132
	7.3.1 Fundamental Features	133
	7.3.2 Two-Stage Heat with HPR-Burners	133
	7.4 Industrial Trials of HPR-Burners	135
	7.4.1 Slag Door Burners: Effectiveness of Flame Direction Changes	135
	7.4.2 Two-Stage Process with a Door Burner in 6-ton Furnaces	137
	7.4.3 Two-Stage Process with Roof Burners in 100-ton and 200-ton EAFs	140
	7.5 Oriel and Sidewall HPR-Burners	144
	7.6 Fuel Arc Furnace (FAF)	148
	7.7 Economy of Replacement of Electrical Energy with Fuel	150
	References	152
	8 Basic PhysicalChemical Processes in Liquid Bath: Process Mechanisms	154
	8.1 Interaction of Oxygen Jets with the Bath: General Concepts	154
	8.2 Oxidation of Carbon	155
	8.3 Melting of Scrap	157
	8.4 Heating of the Bath	159
	9 Bath Stirring and Splashing During Oxygen Blowing	161
	9.1 Stirring Intensity: Methods and Results of Measurement	161
	9.2 Mechanisms of Bath Stirring	162
	9.2.1 Stirring Through Circulation and Pulsation	162
	9.2.2 Stirring by Oxygen Jets and CO Bubbles	163
	9.3 Factors Limiting Intensity of Bath Oxygen Blowing in Electric Arc Furnaces	164
	9.3.1 Iron Oxidation: Effect of Stirring	164
	9.3.2 Bath Splashing	166
	9.4 Oxygen Jets as a Key to Controlling Processes in the Bath	168
	References	169
	10 Jet Streams: Fundamental Laws and Calculation Formulae	170
	10.1 Jet Momentum	170
	10.2 Flooded Free Turbulent Jet: Formation Mechanism and Basic Principles	171
	10.3 Subsonic Jets: Cylindrical and Tapered Nozzles	173
	10.4 Supersonic Jets and Nozzles: Operation Modes	176
	10.5 Simplified Formulae for Calculations of High-Velocity Oxygen Jets and Supersonic Nozzles	178
	10.5.1 A Limiting Value of Jets' Velocity	180
	10.6 Long Range of Jets	181
	Reference	181
	11 Devices for Blowing of Oxygen and Carbon into the Bath	182
	11.1 Blowing by Consumable Pipes Submerged into Melt and by Mobile Water-Cooled Tuyeres	182
	11.1.1 Manually Operated Blowing Through Consumable Pipes	183
	11.1.2 BSE Manipulator	183
	11.1.3 Mobile Water-Cooled Tuyeres	185
	11.2 Jet Modules: Design, Operating Modes, Reliability	187
	11.2.1 Increase in Oxygen Jets Long Range: Coherent Jets	189
	11.2.2 Effectiveness of Use of Oxygen, Carbon, and Natural Gas in the Modules	192
	11.3 Blowing by Tuyeres Installed in the Bottom Lining	194
	11.3.1 Converter-Type Non-water-Cooled Tuyeres	194
	11.3.2 Tuyeres Cooled by Evaporation of Atomized Water	195
	11.3.3 Explosion-Proof Highly Durable Water-Cooled Tuyeres for Deep Blowing	198
	References	202
	12 Water-Cooled Furnace Elements	203
	12.1 Preliminary Considerations	203
	12.2 Thermal Performance of Elements: Basic Laws	203
	12.3 Principles of Calculation and Design of Water-Cooled Elements	207
	12.3.1 Determining of Heat Flux Rates	207
	12.3.2 Minimum Necessary Water Flow Rate	209
	12.3.3 Critical Zone of the Element	210
	12.3.4 Temperature of Water-Cooled Surfaces	210
	12.3.5 Temperature of External Surfaces	212
	12.3.6 General Diagram of Element Calculation	214
	12.3.7 Hydraulic Resistance of Elements	214
	12.4 Examples of Calculation Analysis of Thermal Performance of Elements	217
	12.4.1 Mobile Oxygen Tuyere	217
	12.4.1.0 Input Data	217
	12.4.1.0 Calculation of Basic Parameters of Thermal Performance of Tuyere	218
	12.4.2 Elements with Pipes Cast into Copper Body and with Channels	219
	12.4.2.0 Input Data	220
	12.4.2.0 Calculation of the Basic Parameters of Thermal Performance of the Element	220
	12.4.3 Jet Cooling of the Elements	222
	12.4.4 Oxygen Tuyere for Deep Blowing of the Bath	223
	12.4.4.0 Calculation of Basic Parameters of Thermal Performance of the Tuyere	224
	References	225
	13 Principles of Automation of Heat Control	226
	13.1 Preliminary Considerations	226
	13.2 Automated Management Systems	226
	13.2.1 Use of Accumulated Information: Static Control	226
	13.2.2 Mathematical Simulation as Method of Control	227
	13.2.3 Dynamic Control: Use of On-line Data	230
	13.3 Rational Degree of Automation	236
	References	237
	14 Off-gas Evacuation and Environmental Protection	238
	14.1 Preliminary Considerations	238
	14.2 Formation and Characteristics of DustGas Emissions	238
	14.2.1 Sources of Emissions	238
	14.2.2 Primary and Secondary Emissions	239
	14.2.3 Composition, Temperature, and Heat Content of Off-gases	240
	14.3 Capturing Emissions: Preparing Emissions for Cleaning in Bag Filters	242
	14.3.1 General Description of the System	242
	14.3.2 Problems of Toxic Emissions	243
	14.3.3 A Simplified Method of Gas Parameters' Calculation in the Direct Evacuation System	245
	14.4 Calculations	246
	14.3.3 List of Designations	246
	14.3.3.0 Amount of CO Evolving from Bath , m 3 /min	247
	14.3.3.0 Amount of Combustion Products Generated by Burners	248
	14.3.3.0 Amount of Primary Air Infiltrated into Freeboard, m 3 /min	248
	14.3.3.0 Maximum Amount of Primary Gases at the Outlet of the Roof Elbow, m 3 /min	249
	14.3.3.0 Composition of Primary Gases, 0	249
	14.3.3.0 The Temperature of Primary Gases , C	250
	14.3.3.0 Physical Heat Content of Primary Gases	250
	14.3.3.0 Amount of Gases at the Inlet of the Stationary Gas Duct (Cross-Section 202) , m 3 /min	251
	14.3.3.0 Temperature of Gas Mixture with Air at the Inlet of the Stationary Gas Duct	251
	14.3.3.0 Amount of Gases After Secondary Post-combustion in the Stationary Gas Duct, , m 3 /min	252
	14.3.3.0 Composition of Humid Gases After Secondary Post-combustion, 0	252
	14.3.3.0 Total Heat Content and Temperature of Gases After Secondary Post-combustion , C	252
	14.3.3.0 Negative Pressure at the Inlet of the Stationary Gas Duct Necessary for Prevention of Uncontrolled Emissions Through the Electrode Ports	253
	14.3.4 Energy Problems	255
	14.4 Use of Air Curtains	257
	References	261
	Index	262