Heating Services in Buildings	5
	Contents	7
	Preface	19
	1: Introduction to Heating Services	21
	2: Wet Heating Systems	25
	TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE	26
	CIRCULATION	27
	PIPING DISTRIBUTION ARRANGEMENT	28
	ONE OR SINGLE PIPE SYSTEM	28
	TWO PIPE SYSTEM	35
	MICRO BORE PIPING SYSTEM	37
	TWO PIPE RADIAL SYSTEM	42
	HYBRID (MIXED) SYSTEMS	46
	OPEN VENTED HEATING SYSTEMS	46
	FEED AND EXPANSION (F&E) CISTERN	48
	OPEN VENT PIPE AND COLD FEED AND EXPANSION PIPE	50
	INTRODUCTION TO AND HISTORY OF SEALED HEATING SYSTEMS	54
	SEALED HEATING SYSTEMS	56
	EXPANSION VESSELS	60
	AIR SEPARATION	62
	SYSTEM CHARGING	65
	SIZING THE EXPANSION VESSEL	70
	GRAVITY CIRCULATION HEATING SYSTEMS	73
	EXPLANATION OF GRAVITY CIRCULATION	73
	3: Materials	75
	PIPING MATERIALS FOR HEATING APPLICATIONS	75
	LIGHT GAUGE COPPER TUBE	76
	CURRENT EUROPEAN BRITISH STANDARD–COPPER TUBE	78
	COATED COPPER TUBE	79
	FORMING BENDS IN COPPER TUBE	79
	JOINTING COPPER TUBE	79
	PROPRIETARY MADE PIPE FITTINGS	79
	MECHANICAL COMPRESSION TYPE FITTINGS	80
	CAPILLARY TYPE FITTINGS	81
	FLAME-FREE JOINTS	84
	PUSH FIT RING SEAL JOINTS	85
	CRIMPED OR PRESSED COPPER JOINTS	86
	STAINLESS STEEL TUBE	87
	STAINLESS STEEL IDENTIFICATION	88
	LIGHT GAUGE STAINLESS STEEL TUBE	89
	STEEL PIPE	91
	LOW CARBON MILD STEEL TUBE	91
	FORMING BENDS IN STEEL TUBE	93
	JOINTS FOR LOW CARBON MILD STEEL TUBE	93
	MECHANICAL TYPE JOINTS FOR STEEL TUBE	93
	MALLEABLE IRON	94
	PLASTICS	95
	CROSS-LINKED POLYETHYLENE (PEX)	96
	POLYBUTYLENE (PB)	97
	JOINTING PEX AND PB TUBES	97
	VALVES	98
	STOPCOCK PATTERN STOPVALVE	99
	GATEVALVES	99
	BUTTERFLY VALVES	101
	DIAPHRAGM VALVE	102
	PLUG VALVES AND COCKS	103
	NON-RETURN AND CHECK VALVES	104
	NON-RETURN VALVES	105
	CHECK VALVES	105
	DOUBLE CHECK VALVE	106
	NON-VERIFIABLE DISCONNECTOR VALVE	107
	REDUCED PRESSURE ZONE (RPZ) VALVE	108
	VACUUM BREAKING VALVE	110
	FLOATVALVES	110
	GLOBE VALVES	114
	4: Heat and Heat Transfer	117
	HEAT	117
	TEMPERATURE	118
	SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY	120
	LATENT HEAT	121
	SENSIBLE HEAT	121
	HEAT TRANSFER	122
	CONDUCTION	122
	CONVECTION	124
	RADIATION	125
	HUMIDITY	126
	5: Heat Emitters	128
	PRESSED STEEL PANEL RADIATORS	129
	CONVECTOR RADIATOR	131
	LOW SURFACE TEMPERATURE (LST) RADIATORS	132
	CAST IRON PANEL RADIATORS	133
	COLUMN RADIATORS	133
	ALUMINIUM RADIATORS	136
	NATURAL CONVECTORS	138
	FLOOR TRENCH CONVECTOR	139
	FAN, OR FORCED CONVECTORS	140
	SKIRTING HEATING	141
	RADIANT PANELS	144
	EMBEDDED RADIANT PANELS	146
	RADIATOR FIXING AND SHELVES	146
	EXAMPLES OF CONVECTION STAINING	147
	RADIATOR ENCLOSURES	149
	RADIATOR CONNECTIONS	149
	ROOM HEIGHT EFFECT	150
	LOCATION OF HEAT EMITTERS	151
	RADIATOR ACCESSORIES	157
	DESIGNER RADIATORS AND TOWEL RAILS	159
	6: Underfloor Heating	160
	OPERATING PRINCIPLES	161
	UFH PIPING MATERIALS	162
	PIPING ARRANGEMENTS	165
	TRANSITING PIPEWORK	167
	FLOOR STRUCTURES AND FINISHES	168
	FLOOR FINISHES	175
	ASSESSMENT OF FLOOR HEAT EMISSION	175
	UNDERFLOOR HEATING COMPONENTS	179
	UFH WATER TEMPERATURE CONTROL	180
	SYSTEM TESTING AND COMMISSIONING	183
	7: Heat Requirements of Buildings	185
	INTERNAL DESIGN TEMPERATURES	186
	EXTERNAL TEMPERATURE (BASE DESIGN TEMPERATURE)	187
	THERMAL PROPERTIES OF BUILDINGS	189
	‘U’ VALUES (THERMAL TRANSMITTANCE COEFFICIENT)	190
	AIR INFILTRATION	191
	HEAT GAINS	197
	BUILDING TIME-LAG	198
	HEAT LOSS CALCULATIONS	199
	WORKED ENGINEERING HEAT LOSS CALCULATION	200
	EXPLANATION OF EXAMPLE CALCULATION	200
	BOILER SIZING	210
	CUBE X NUMBER METHOD	213
	8: Heat Emitter Selection and Sizing	214
	MEAN WATER TEMPERATURE AND DELTA T	216
	CONDENSING BOILER SYSTEMS MODE	218
	CORRECTION FACTORS	219
	EXAMPLE OF CORRECTION FACTOR USE	220
	SIZING AND SELECTION PROCEDURE FOR HEAT EMITTERS	221
	HEATING SURFACE	224
	9: Pipe Sizing	226
	FLOW OF HEAT IN PIPES	226
	VELOCITY	228
	FRICTIONAL RESISTANCE	229
	INDEX PIPE CIRCUIT	231
	PIPE SIZING DATA	231
	PIPE SIZING PROCEDURE	232
	SIMPLER PIPE SIZING EXAMPLE	242
	BOILER BYPASS FLOW ALLOWANCE	242
	APPROXIMATION OF PIPE SIZES	242
	OTHER PIPING ARRANGEMENTS	244
	10: Electricity	246
	HISTORY AND NATURE OF ELECTRICITY	247
	DEFINITIONS OF ELECTRICAL TERMS	247
	ELECTRICAL GENERATION, SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION	248
	DIRECT CURRENT (DC)	251
	CABLE IDENTIFICATION COLOURS	252
	VOLTAGE DEFINITIONS	252
	BUILDING WIRING CIRCUITS	253
	CONSUMER UNIT	253
	RING CIRCUITS	254
	SPUR POINTS	256
	LIGHTING RADIAL CIRCUITS	257
	IMMERSION HEATER WIRING	257
	EARTHING	259
	11: Controls, Components and Control Systems	262
	CONTROLS FOR SAFETY	262
	SYSTEM SAFETY RELIEF VALVES	263
	CONTROLS FOR COMFORT AND ENERGY EFFICIENCY	267
	B ASIC SYSTEM OF THERMOSTAT CONTROLLING PUMP	267
	ROOM THERMOSTATS	268
	ROOM THERMOSTAT LOCATION	269
	MIXING CONVECTORS AND RADIATORS	270
	TEMPERATURE SENSING VALVE	271
	CYLINDER THERMOSTAT ARRANGED FOR DOMESTIC HOT WATER PRIORITY	273
	CYLINDER THERMOSTATS	274
	CURRENT CONTROL SCHEMES	275
	ZONE CONTROL BY TWO-PORT MOTORISED VALVE	275
	MOTORISED VALVES	278
	SELECTIVE DIVERTER CONTROL BY THREE-WAY MOTORISED VALVE	279
	SHARED FLOW BY THREE-WAY MOTORISED VALVE	281
	WEATHER COMPENSATING CONTROL SYSTEM	282
	TWIN-PUMP CONTROL SCHEMES	286
	WIRELESS CONTROLS	290
	THERMOSTATIC FROST PROTECTION	291
	AUTOMATIC SPACE TEMPERATURE REDUCTION	292
	AUTOMATIC BYPASS VALVE	293
	THERMOSTATIC RADIATOR VALVES (TRVs)	295
	12: Oil Firing	298
	OIL	298
	OIL BURNER FUELS	299
	EXPLANATION OF CHARACTERISTICS	301
	OIL STORAGE	304
	OIL STORAGE TANKS	305
	BUNDED OIL CATCHMENT AREAS	310
	STORAGE TANK LOCATION	311
	OIL HANDLING AND DISTRIBUTION	313
	OIL FIRE VALVE	318
	DOMESTIC OIL FIRED HEATING FIRE VALVES	321
	OIL FILTERS AND STRAINERS	322
	OIL LINE PIPE SIZING	324
	OIL PRE-HEATING	324
	CENTRAL OIL STORAGE	324
	OIL BURNERS	326
	PRESSURE JET OIL BURNER	328
	ROTARY CUP BURNER	331
	ROTARY VAPORISING OIL BURNERS	332
	ROTARY VAPORISING DYNAFLAME BURNER	333
	CONSTANT LEVEL CONTROL UNIT	334
	13: Natural Gas Firing	336
	GAS	336
	NATURAL GAS	337
	ODOUR	337
	TOXICITY	338
	CALORIFIC VALUE	338
	RELATIVE DENSITY	338
	COMBUSTION AIR	339
	WOBBE NUMBER	339
	BURNING VELOCITY	339
	GAS MODULUS	340
	SUPPLY PRESSURE	340
	OTHER GASES	340
	GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION	342
	GAS METERS	343
	METER COMPARTMENT	346
	GAS BOOSTING	347
	GAS SUPPLY PIPEWORK	347
	DOMESTIC PIPE SIZING	348
	FLOW OF GAS IN PIPES	350
	GAS BURNERS	350
	NATURAL DRAUGHT BURNERS	351
	GAS SAFETY SOLENOID SHUT-OFF VALVE	352
	THERMOCOUPLE ASSEMBLY	353
	BOILER THERMOSTAT AND MAIN GAS SOLENOID CONTROL VALVE	354
	MAIN BURNER GAS PRESSURE GOVERNOR/REGULATOR	356
	MULTIFUNCTIONAL GAS CONTROL VALVE	357
	IGNITION METHODS	359
	FAN-ASSISTED NATURAL DRAUGHT BURNERS	360
	FORCED DRAUGHT GAS BURNER	361
	PULSE COMBUSTION FURNACE	363
	14: Liquefied Petroleum Gas Firing (LPG)	365
	PROPERTIES OF LIQUEFIED PETROLEUM GAS	366
	EXPLANATION OF PROPERTIES	366
	LIQUEFIED PETROLEUM GAS STORAGE	369
	CYLINDER INSTALLATIONS	369
	BULK LPG STORAGE INSTALLATION	371
	STATIC ELECTRICITY	373
	FIRE PROTECTION	373
	LPG STORAGE LOCATION	373
	LPG DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS	374
	DISTRIBUTION PIPING MATERIALS	374
	LPG GAS BURNERS	375
	15: Alternative Fuels and Energy	376
	WOOD BURNING	377
	ELECTRICAL ENERGY	378
	ELECTRIC HEAT GENERATORS	380
	NEW ALTERNATIVE FUELS, ENERGIES AND SYSTEMS	381
	SOLAR HEATING	382
	COMBINED HEAT AND POWER (CHP)	382
	MICRO-COMBINED HEAT AND POWER	384
	BIOFUELS	386
	BIOMASS	386
	BIOMASS BOILERS	387
	BIO-OIL	389
	BIOGAS	390
	HEAT PUMPS	390
	HEAT PUMP REFRIGERANT	392
	HEAT PUMP TYPES AND APPLICATIONS	392
	AIR SOURCE	393
	AIR-TO-AIR HEAT PUMPS	394
	AIR-TO-WATER HEAT PUMPS	395
	WATER SOURCE	396
	WATER-TO-AIR AND WATER-TO-WATER HEAT PUMPS	397
	GROUND SOURCE HEAT PUMPS	398
	SOLAR ENERGY HEAT PUMPS	401
	COEFFICIENT OF PERFORMANCE (COP)	401
	HEAT RECOVERY	402
	16: Combustion, Flues and Chimneys	403
	AIR	403
	COMBUSTION AND COMBUSTION REACTION	404
	INCOMPLETE COMBUSTION	408
	CARBON MONOXIDE (CO)	409
	EFFECTS OF CARBON MONOXIDE POISONING	410
	CARBON MONOXIDE DETECTORS	411
	INCORRECT BURNER PRESSURES	411
	FLAME IMPINGEMENT	412
	PRODUCT OF COMBUSTION STANDARDS	412
	NITROGEN OXIDE	412
	NOx	413
	FLUES AND CHIMNEYS	413
	DESIGN PERFORMANCE FACTORS	414
	DRAUGHT	414
	COMBUSTION AND VENTILATION AIR	414
	TEMPERATURE DIFFERENTIAL	417
	FLUE OR CHIMNEY HEIGHT	417
	COMBUSTION STACK EFFECT	417
	ADVERSE PERFORMANCE FACTORS	417
	FLUE AND CHIMNEY TERMINATIONS AND TERMINALS	420
	DRAUGHT DIVERTERS, BREAKS AND STABILISERS	424
	THERMAL INVERSION	427
	FLUE PRINCIPLES, CONSTRUCTION AND MATERIALS	428
	USE AND LINING OF EXISTING MASONRY CHIMNEYS	430
	BALANCED FLUES	432
	ROOM SEALED APPLIANCES	433
	BALANCED FLUE TERMINATIONS	435
	FLUE BOOSTING	438
	FLUES FOR HIGH-RISE BUILDINGS	439
	SE-DUCT AND ‘U’ DUCT FLUE SYSTEMS	442
	FLUE DILUTION	445
	ASSESSMENT OF CONVENTIONAL FLUE PIPE SIZES	446
	CONDENSATION WITHIN FLUES	449
	PSYCHROMETRICS	450
	CONDENSING BOILERS	450
	SEDBUK	451
	DEVELOPMENT OF CONDENSING BOILERS	452
	CONDENSING HEATING SYSTEMS	454
	PLUMING	457
	CONDENSATE DRAIN	458
	BOILER EFFICIENCY	461
	17: Combustion Efficiency Testing	462
	BURNER EFFICIENCY	462
	COMBUSTION EFFICIENCY TESTING	463
	FLUE GAS TEMPERATURE	464
	DEW POINT TEMPERATURE	466
	CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2) CONTENT	466
	SMOKE TEST	469
	FLUE DRAUGHT TEST	472
	NITROGEN OXIDES (NOx)	473
	ELECTRONIC FLUE GAS ANALYSERS	473
	18: Circulating Pumps	474
	CENTRIFUGAL ACTION	475
	CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS	476
	CIRCULATING PUMPS	476
	DOMESTIC INLINE CIRCULATORS	478
	PUMP SELECTION	478
	FIXED OR VARIABLE PERFORMANCE PUMPS	480
	PUMP EFFECTS	481
	PUMP POSITION	483
	CIRCULATING PUMPS FOR SEALED HEATING SYSTEMS	485
	CAVITATION	486
	FFECTS OF CAVITATION	488
	PUMP ARRANGEMENTS	488
	ELECTRIC MOTORS	492
	INDEX OF PROTECTION (IP RATING)	493
	METHODS OF STARTING ELECTRIC MOTORS	494
	ANCILLARY EQUIPMENT FOR PUMPS	496
	NOISE AND VIBRATION	500
	19: Domestic Hot Water	502
	CHOICE OF DOMESTIC HOT WATER SYSTEM	502
	ASSESSMENT OF DOMESTIC HOT WATER STORAGE	503
	RECOVERY TIME	503
	DOMESTIC HOT WATER TEMPERATURE	505
	DOMESTIC HOT WATER STORAGE VESSELS	506
	DIRECT DOMESTIC HOT WATER SYSTEMS	507
	INDIRECT DOMESTIC HOT WATER SYSTEMS	507
	SINGLE FEED INDIRECT DOMESTIC HOT WATER SYSTEMS	511
	UNVENTED DOMESTIC HOT WATER	513
	PRINCIPLES OF UNVENTED DOMESTIC HOT WATER STORAGE SYSTEMS	515
	DISCHARGE PIPES FROM SAFETY DEVICES	518
	SUMMARY OF CONTROLS FOR UVDHWSS	521
	UNVENTED DOMESTIC HOT WATER STORAGE VESSEL WITH INTERNAL EXPANSION CHAMBER	521
	NON-STORAGE UNVENTED DOMESTIC HOT WATER SYSTEMS	522
	DOMESTIC HOT WATER CYLINDER WITH TWIN HEAT EXCHANGERS	523
	STRATIFICATION	524
	BOILER LOADING/ELECTRICAL POWER FOR DOMESTIC HOT WATER	527
	ELECTRIC IMMERSION HEATERS	528
	COMBINATION BOILERS FOR HEATING AND DOMESTIC HOT WATER	530
	20: Solar Energy for Water Heating	533
	SOLAR ENERGY	533
	SOLAR RADIATION INTENSITY	537
	SOLAR THERMAL SYSTEMS	537
	SOLAR THERMAL ENERGY FOR SPACE HEATING	539
	SOLAR THERMAL ENERGY FOR HEATING SWIMMING POOLS	540
	SOLAR ENERGY HEAT SOURCE FOR HEAT PUMPS	541
	SOLAR THERMAL ENERGY FOR RAISING DOMESTIC HOT WATER TEMPERATURE	542
	DIRECT SOLAR DOMESTIC HOT WATER SYSTEMS	543
	INDIRECT SOLAR DOMESTIC HOT WATER SYSTEMS	545
	SOLAR HEATED THERMAL STORE	545
	FROST PROTECTION	547
	DRAIN-BACK SOLAR HEATING SYSTEMS	550
	SOLAR COLLECTOR PANELS	552
	SOLAR COLLECTOR PANEL LOCATION	556
	SOLAR COLLECTOR PANEL FIXING	557
	SOLAR COLLECTOR PANEL SIZING	559
	SOLAR HEATING CONTROL SCHEMES	559
	21: Water Treatment	562
	WATER SUPPLY	562
	WATER TREATMENT	563
	HARDNESS OF WATER	563
	CLASSIFICATION OF HARDNESS	563
	EFFECT OF HARD WATER	565
	BASE EXCHANGE SOFTENING	565
	INSTALLATION OF BASE EXCHANGE WATER SOFTENER	566
	ELECTROLYTIC ACTION	567
	DEZINCIFICATION	569
	BLACK IRON OXIDE	569
	HYDROGEN GAS	569
	BACTERIAL ACTIVITY	570
	OXIDIC CORROSION	571
	OTHER FORMS OF CORROSION	571
	ALUMINIUM HEAT EMITTERS	572
	pH VALUE (POTENTIAL HYDROGEN)	572
	CORROSION INHIBITION	573
	APPLICATION OF THE INHIBITOR (NEW SYSTEMS)	574
	APPLICATION OF THE INHIBITOR ( EXISTING SYSTEMS)	576
	NON-DOMESTIC HEATING SYSTEMS	576
	SACRIFICIAL ANODES	576
	SCALE REDUCERS/ WATER CONDITIONERS	577
	22: District Heating	579
	THE DISTRICT HEATING SYSTEM	580
	THE HEAT-GENERATING STATION	580
	DISTRIBUTION HEATING MAINS	581
	DISTRIBUTION PIPE MATERIALS AND INSTALLATION	584
	HEAT METERS AND CONSUMER CONNECTIONS	588
	23: Expansion of Pipework	591
	COEFFICIENT OF LINEAR EXPANSION	592
	CALCULATING EXPANSION	592
	PROVISION FOR EXPANSION AND EXPANSION JOINTS	594
	EXPANSION LOOPS	595
	EXPANSION BELLOWS/COMPENSATORS	596
	CYCLIC LIFE	598
	BELLOWS APPLICATION	599
	FORCES ON ANCHORS AND GUIDES	600
	ANCHORS AND GUIDES	603
	HINGED ANGULAR BELLOWS	605
	ARTICULATED BELLOWS	606
	GIMBAL EXPANSION BELLOWS	607
	PACKED GLAND SLIDING EXPANSION JOINT	608
	FLEXIBLE RUBBER EXPANSION JOINTS	609
	24: Regulations, Standards, Codes and Guides	611
	BUILDING REGULATIONS	612
	WATER REGULATIONS	621
	THE GAS SAFETY (INSTALLATION AND USE) REGULATIONS	624
	BRITISH STANDARDS	624
	COMPETENT PERSONS SCHEMES	624
	PROFESSIONAL BODIES	625
	25: Testing and System Commissioning	628
	TESTING FOR SOUNDNESS	629
	TESTING MEDIUM	631
	TESTING METALLIC PIPING SYSTEMS	633
	TESTING THERMOPLASTIC PIPING SYSTEMS	633
	TESTING SYSTEMS COMPRISING MIXED RIGID AND ELASTOMERIC PIPING MATERIALS	635
	PRE-COMMISSIONING ACTIVITIES	637
	COMMISSIONING THE HEAT RAISING PLANT	637
	COMMISSIONING THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM	637
	OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE REQUIREMENTS	641
	26: Operating Costs and Whole Life Costing	642
	CALORIFIC VALUE	643
	SYSTEM EFFICIENCY	643
	HEATING LOAD	644
	HEATING SEASON/ OPERATING PERIOD	644
	DEGREE-DAYS	645
	ANNUAL ENERGY CONSUMED	645
	ANNUAL FUEL UTILISATION	647
	ANNUAL AUXILIARIES RUNNING COSTS	648
	WHOLE LIFE COSTING	648
	Appendices	651
	APPENDIX 1: COMPARATIVE TABLE OF SHEET METAL GAUGES	652
	APPENDIX 2: TEMPERATURE COMPARISON AT ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE	654
	APPENDIX 3: MESH/MICRON RATING	655
	APPENDIX 4: COPPER TUBE BS EN1057 (INTRODUCED 15/8/96, FORMERLY BS2871)	656
	APPENDIX 5: DIMENSIONAL TOLERANCES OF LOW CARBON MILD STEEL TUBE CONFORMING TO BS EN10255, 2004. FORMERLY BS 1387	657
	APPENDIX 6: HYDROSTATIC DATA	658
	APPENDIX 7: COMPOSITION OF COPPER ALLOYS (COMMON)	659
	APPENDIX 8: COMPOSITION OF SOFT SOLDERS	660
	APPENDIX 9: SI PREFIXES	661
	APPENDIX 10: LIGHT GAUGE STAINLESS STEEL TUBE AUSTENITIC TYPE 304 OR 316 (BS EN10312)	661
	APPENDIX 11: ELEMENTS AND CHEMICAL SYMBOLS	662
	APPENDIX 12: BEAUFORT WIND SCALE	663
	APPENDIX 13: COMPARISON OF BSP AND NPT THREADS	663
	APPENDIX 14: PROPERTIES OF WATER	664
	APPENDIX 15: TEMPERATURE CONVERSIONS	665
	APPENDIX 16: METRIC CONVERSION FACTORS	666
	APPENDIX 17: PRESSURE CONVERSION	668
	APPENDIX 18: HEAT FLOW CONVERSION	668
	APPENDIX 19: APPROXIMATE VISCOSITY CONVERSION	669
	APPENDIX 20: VISCOSITY–TEMPERATURE RELATIONSHIP	670
	APPENDIX 21: ALTITUDE AND PRESSURE CORRECTIONS	671
	Index	673